E E X E X Q ) 1 6

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

Understand and describe time period, frequency, the peak and root mean square
values of an alternating current and voltage.
2. Know and use the relationship for the sinusoidal wave.
3. Understand the flow ofA .C . through resistors, capacitors and inductors.
4. Understand how phase lags and leads in the circuit.
5. Apply the knowledge to calculate the reactances of capacitors and inductors.
6. Descnbe impedance as vector summation of resistances.
Know and use the formulae ofA .C . power to solve the problems.
8. Understand the function of resonant circuits.
9. Appreciate the principle of metal detectors used for security checks.
Describe the three phase A .C. suppty.
Become familiar with electromagnetic spectrum (ranging from radio waves
toy rays).
12, Know the production, transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves.

W * have read in the last chapter that an A .C . generator produces alternating

voltage/current. Now a days most of the electrical energy is produced by A .C . generators
using water power or huge steam turbines. The main reason for the world wide use of A .C . is
that it can be transmitted to long distances easily and at a very low cost.
16.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current (A C .) is that which is produced by a voltage source whose polarity keeps
on reversing with time (Fig.16.1 a.b). In Fig.16.1 (a), the terminal A of the source is positive
with respect to terminal B and it remains so during a time interval 0 to T / 2 . At t = T / 2 . the
terminals change their polarity. Now A becomes negative with respect to B (Fig.16.1 b). This
state continues during the time interval T / 2 to T. after which terminal A again becomes
positive with respect to B and the next cycle starts. As a result of this change of polarity, the
direction of the current flow in the circuit also changes. During the time 0 - T/ 2 . it flows in one
direction and during the interval T / 2 -T i n opposite direction (Fig. 16.1 a.b). This time interval T

III
 during which the voltage source changes its polarity once is
known as period 7 of the alternating current or voltage. Th u s
an alternating quantity is associated with a frequency /given
by

T h e most com m on source of alternating voltage is an A C .

generator which has been described in the previous chapter.
T h e output V o f this A C . generator at an y instant is given by

. 2 it , (1 6 2 )
V0sin y x I

where 7 is period of the rotation of the coil and is equal to the

period of A .C . and ^ = 2 s / = w is angular frequency of rotation

of the coil. Th u s =<oJ is the angle 9 through which the

coil rotates m time t. Eq.16.2 shows that the value of

alternating voltage V is not constant It changes with timef.

f 19 1*1 W h en I « 0. o - y *f is 0 and V is zero W h en t = 7/4.

0 = x — a — and Vattains its m axim um value V at this

T 4 2
instant. At I = 7/2. 0 * n and V is zero. At this instant V
changes its polarity and becom es negative henceforth.
37
W henf = — . 0 and V = ■Vc and finally at the end of tho
4

cycle w hen I = 7. 0 = 2s and V = 0. T h e variation of V with

time f and 0 is shown in F ig . 16.2 (a .b). Th is graph between
voltage and time is known a s waveform of alternating
voltage. It can bo seen that it is a sine curve. T h u s the output
voltage of a n A .C . generator varies sinusoidally with time. In
/ 7 \ C p E
*/2 \ 3V 2 our daily life we are mostly dealing with this type of voltage,
s o w e will consider it in deta il

(b) 1. In s ta n t a n e o u s v a lu e
Fig. 16.2
T h e value of voltage or current that exists in a circuit at any
instant of timo t m easured from som e reference point is
known a s its instantaneous value. It can have any value
between plus m aximum value * V , and negative m axim um

112
value -V„ ar>d is denoted by V. T h e entire waveform shown in
Fig. 16.2 is actually a set of all the instantaneous values that
exist during a period T. Mathematically, it is given by
V = V .s in 6 = V .sin <of
2- ,
V = V . s i n ' y x ‘ = V .s in 2 * f f ............. (1 6 .3 )

2. P e a k v a lu e
It is the highest value reached by the voltage or current in one
cycle. F o r exam ple, voltage shown in Fig. 16.2 has a peak
value of V..

3. P e a k to P e a k V a lu e

It is the sum of the positive and negative peak values usually

wntten as p-p value. T h e p -p value of the voltage waveform
shown in Fig. 16.2 is 2 V..
Do You K now ?
R o o t M e a n S q u a r e ( r m s 1V a Iu c
If we connect a n ordinary D .C . am m eter to m easure V-
alternating current, it would m easure its value as averaged §
over a cycle. It can be seen in Fig. 16.2 that the average value &
of current and voltage over a cycle is zero, but the power }
delivered during a cycle is not ze ro because power is I 'R and |
the values of / ‘are positive even for negativo values of /. Th u s
the average value of / 'is not zero and is called the m ean
square current. T h e alternating current or voltage is actually
measured by squaro root of its m ean square value known as ' - . • 0 7 /.
root m ean square (rm s ) value. A .C Waveform

F I9 - 1 « J
Let us com pute the average value of V over a cycle. F ig . 16.3
shows a n alternating voltage and the w a y its V values vary.
Note that the values of V 1 are, positive on the negative half
cycle also. A s the graph of V is symmetrical about tho line
2 Vot so for thisfigure the m ean or the average value of V is
’ Vo. T h e root m ean square value of V is obtained by taking

113
th e s q u a re roo t o f V * 12 T h e re fo re .

v~ * J ? mT2 m07K (16-4)

Similarly /_= ^ =0.7/o

Most of the alternating current and voltage meters are

calibrated to read rms values. When we speak of A .C . meter
reading, we usually mean rms values unless stated
otherwise

E x a m p le 16.1 : A n A .C . voltmeter reads 250 V. What is its

peak and instantaneous values if the frequency of alternating
voltage is 50 H z?

S o lu tio n :

rms valuo of alternating voltage ■ V*. ■ 250 V

Its peak value V. is given by tho relation

or K = J 2 V -. = >fex 2 5 0 V = 3 5 3 .5 V

Angular froquoncy o> = 2 itf

= 2 x it x 5 0 H z = 1 0 0 n H z
Therefore, instantaneous value is given by
V = [Link] o>/

= 353.5 sin (lO O x f) V

P h a s e o f A .C .
W e have seen that the instantaneous value of the alternating
voltage is given by
V = [Link] t»f
or V = [Link]
This angle 0 which specifies the instantaneous value of the
alternating voltage or current is known as its phase. In
Fig. 16.2 (b). we can say that the phase at the points A . B. C . 0
and E is 0. x / 2. x. 3x / 2 and 2x respectively because these
angles are the values of 0 at these points. Thu s each point on
the A .C . waveform corresponds to a certain phase.

1 14
T h e phase at the positive peak is x/2 = 90’ and it is
3x/2 = 270’ at tho negative peak. T h e points whore the
waveform crosses the time axis correspond to phase 0 and x.

P hase La g and Phase Lead

In practice, the phase difference between two alternating

quantities is more important than their absolute phases.
Fig 1 6 4 shows two waveforms 1 and 2. Th e phase angles of
the waveform 1 at the points A. B. C . D and E have been shown F lg .1 M
above the axis and those of waveform 2 below the axis. At the
point B. the phase of 1 is x 12 and that of 2 is 0. Stmiarly it can
be seen that at each point the phase of waveform 2 is less than
the phase of waveform 1 by an angle of x / 2 W e s a y th a tA .C . 2
is lagging behind A .C , 1 by an angle of x / 2 It means that at
each instant, the phase of A C . 2 is less than the phase of A C . 1
by it / 2. Similarly it can be seen m Fig. 16.5. that the phase at
each point of the waveform of A C . 2 is greater m an that of A
waveform 1 by an angle s / 2. In mis case, it is said that A .C . 2 is
leading the A C . 1 by n / 2. It means mat at each instant of time,
the phase of A .C . 2 is greater than that of 1 by x / 2. Flfl. i t s
Phase lead and lag between two alternating quantities is
conveniently shown b y representing the two A C . quantities
as vectors.
V e c t o r R e p re s e n t a t io n o f a n A lt e r n a t in g Q u a n t it y
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or current can be
graphically represented by a counter clockwise rotating
vector provided it satisfies the following conditions.
1. Its length on a certain scale represents the peak or
rm s value of m e alternating quantity.
2. It is in the horizontal position at m e instant when the
alternating quantity is zero and is increasing positively.
3. Th e angular frequency of m e rotating vector is the
sam e as the angular frequency to of the alternating
quantity.
Fig. 16.6 (a ) shows a sinusoidal voltage waveform leading an
alternating current waveform by x / 2. T h e sam e fact has been
shown vectorially in Fig. 16.6 (b). Here vector 01 represents
the peak or rms value of the current which is taken as the
reference quantity. Similarly O V represents m e rms or peak F*g. 16.$
value of the alternating voltage which is leading the current by
90°. Bom vectors are supposed to be rotating in m e counter

115
 c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n a t the a n g u la r fre q u e n c y o> o f the two
a lte rn ating q u a n titie s. F ig . 1 6 .6 ( b ) s h o w s the position of
v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t v e c to r a t f = 0 . _______________________________

16.2 A .C . C IR C U IT S
T h e b a s ic c irc u it e le m e n t in a D .C . circuit is a re sisto r ( R )
w h ic h c o n tro ls th e c u rre n t o r v o lta g e a n d the relationship
b e tw e e n th e m is g iv e n b y O h m 's la w tha t is V = I R .

In A . C . circu its , in a d d itio n to re sisto r R , tw o n e w circuit

e le m e n ts n a m e ly I N D U C T O R ( L ) . a n d C A P A C I T O R ( C )
b e c o m e re le v a n t. T h e c u rre n t a n d v o lta g e s in A . C . circuits
a re c o n tro lled b y th re e e le m e n ts R . L a n d C . W e w o u ld s tu d y
the r e s p o n s e o f a n A . C . circuit w h e n it is e x cite d b y a n
a lte rn ating v o lta g e ._____________________________________________

16.3 A .C . T H R O U G H A R E S IS T O R
F ig . 16 .7 ( a ) s h o w s a re sisto r of re s is ta n c e R c o n n e c te d w ith
a n a lte rn a tin g v o lta g e s o u rc e .

A t a n y tim e t th e po te ntia l diffe re nce a c r o s s th e term in als of

the re s is to r is g iv e n b y

V = V ,.s in c o f ................ (1 6 .5 )

w h e re V . is th e p e a k v a lu e o f the a lte rn a tin g vo lta g e . T h e

c u rre n t / flo w in g t h ro u g h th e circuit is g iv e n b y O h m 's la w
V
'-R f t sin<of

or / = / „ s in w f (1 6 .6 )

Ysl
w h e re / is th e in s ta n ta n e o u s c u rre n t a n d /, = f t is the

p e a k v a lu e of th e c u rre n t. It fo llo w s fro m E q s .1 6 .5 a n d 16.6

tha t th e in s ta n ta n e o u s v a lu e s of b o th v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t are
s in e fu n c tio n s w h ic h v a ry w ith tim e (F ig , 1 6 .7 b ). T h is figure
s h o w s that w h e n v o lta g e rise s, the c u rre n t a ls o rises. If the
vo lta g e falls, the c u rre n t a ls o d o e s s o - b o th p a s s their
m a x im u m a n d m in im u m v a lu e s a t the s a m e insta nt. T h u s in a
p u re ly resistive A . C . c irc u it, in s ta n ta n e o u s v a lu e s o f voltage
i a n d c u rre n t a re in p h a s e . T h is b e h a v io u r is s h o w n g ra p h ic a lly

(e) in F i g . 16 .7 ( b ) a n d v e c to n a lty in F i g . 16 .7 (c ).

F lfl. 1 6 .7
F ig . 1 6 .7 ( c ) s h o w s V a n d I v e c to rs for re s is ta n c e . T h e y a re
d ra w n pa rallel b e c a u s e th e re is n o p h a s e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
t h e m . T h e o p p o s i t i o n to A . C . w h i c h t h e c ir c u it

116
p re s e n ts is th e re s is ta n c e

*= 7 (16.7)

T h o instantaneous power in the resistance is given by

p a l’ R ^ V I x V '/ R ............. (16.8)
P is in watts. V is in voits. I is in amperes and R Is in ohms. It is
very important to note that the Eq. 16.8 holds only when the
current and voltage are in phase.

16.4 A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR

Alternating current can flow through a resistor, but it is not
obvious that how it can flow through a capacitor. This can be
demonstrated by the circuit shown in Fig. 16.8. A low power
bulb is connected in series with a 1 uF capacitor to supply
mains through a switch. W hen the switch is closed, the bulb
lights up showing that the current is flowing through the
capacitor. Direct current cannot flow through a capacitor
continuously because of the presence of an insulating
medium between tho platos of the capacitor. N ow let us see
how does A .C . flows through a capacitor. T h e current flows
because the capacitor plates are continuously charged,
discharged and charged the other way round by the
alternating voltage (Fig. 16.9 a). Th e basic relation between
tho charge q on a capacitor and the voltage V across its
plates i.e. q = C Vholds at every instant. If V = V0sin u>/ is the
applied alternating voltage, the charge on the capacitor at
any instant will be given by

q = C V » C V . sinwf ............. (16.9)

Since C. V, are constants, it is obvious that q will vary the same

way as applied voltage i.e.. V a nd ga re in phase (Fig. 16.9b).
p
Th e current / is the rate of change of q with time i.e..

/ .^
At
S o the value of /at any instant is the corresponding slope of
the p /curve. At O when q = 0. the slope is maximum, so / is
then a maximum. From O to A. slope of the q -t curve
decreases to zero. S o / is ze ro atN . F ro m A to B th e slope of
the q - 1curve is negative and so / is negative from N to R. In
this way the curve P N R S T gives the variation of current
with time.
Referring to the Fig. 16.2 (b ) it can be seen that the phase at O
is zero and the phase at the upper maximum is x / 2. S o in
Fig.16.9 (b ) the phase of V at O is zero but the current at this
point is maximum so its phase is x / 2. Thus, the current is
leading the applied voltage by 90* or x / 2. Now consider the
points A and N. Th e phase of alternating voltage at A is x / 2
but the phase of current at N is x. Again the current is leading
the voltage by 90° or x / 2 Similarly by comparing the phase
at the pair of points (B. R ). (C . S ) and (D . T ) it can be seen that
at all these points the current leads tho voltage by 90’ or n/2.
This is vectorialty represented in Fig. 16.9 (c).
Roactance of a capacitor is a measure of the opposition
offered by the capacitor to the flow of A .C . It is usually
represented by X c . Its value is given by

(16.10)

whore VL, is the rms value of the alternating votage across the
capacitor and / „ is the rms value of current passing through the
capacitor. The unit of reactance is ohm. In case of capacitor

1 1 (16.11)
2x fC <oC

According to Eq. 16.11. a certain capacitor will have a largr

reactanco at low frequency. So the magnitude of th«
opposition offered by it will be large and the current in th«
circuit will be small. O n the other hand at high frequency. th<
roactance will be low and the high frequency current througl
tho same capacitor will be large

E x a m p le 16 .2: A 100 uF capacitor is connected to ar

alternating voltage of 24 V and frequency 50 H z. Calculate
(a ) Th e reactance of the capacitor, and
(b ) Th e currdnt in tho circuit
S o lu tio n :
1
(a ) Reactance of the capacitor Xc *

1
2 x 3.14 * 50 s"’ x 100 x 10

X c = 3 1 .8 -— * - 31.8 ft
c Cs ’

118
 v_
(b ) From the equation Xf-= —

, V -. 24 V , 7CA
075A
16.5 A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
A n inductor is usually in the form of a coil or a solenoid wound
from a thick wire so that it has a large value of self inductance
and has a negligible resistance. W e have already seen how
self inductance opposos changes of current. So when an
alternating source of voltage is applied across an inductor, it
must oppose the flow of A .C . which is continuously changing
(Fig. 16.10). Let us assume that the resistance of the coil is
negligible. W e can simplify the theory by considering first, the
current and then finding the potential difference across the
inductor which will cause this current. Suppose the current is
/ = /.sin 2 Jiff. If L is the inductance of the coil, the changing
current sets up a back emf in the coil of magnitude
M
‘ • 'L u
To maintain the current, the applied voltage must be equal to
the back e.m.f. T h e applied voltage across the coil must,
therefore, be equal to

Since L is a constant. V is proportional to — . Fig. 16.10 (b )

Af
shows how the current / varies with time. The value of
A/ / Af is given by the slope of the / - f curve at the various
instants of time. At O, the value of the slope is maximum, so the
maximum value of V equal to V, occurs at O and is represented
by O P (Fig. 16.10 b). From O to A the slope of I - f graph
decreases to zero so the voltage decreases form V, to zero at
Q. From A to B. the slope of the / - f graph is negative, so the
voltage curve goes from Q to /?. In this way the voltage is
represented by the curve P Q R S T corresponding to current
curve O A B C D . By comparing the phases of the pair of points
(O , P). (A, Q ). (B. R), (C . S ) and (D. T ). it can be seen that the
phase of the current is always less than the phase of voltage by
90'’ or x / 2 i.e.. current lags behind the applied vottago by 90*
or x/2 or the applied voltage leads the current by 90* or n / 2.

119
 T h is is vectorially shown in Fig. 16.10(c) Inductive reactance
is a m easure of the opposition offered by the inductance coil
to the flow of A .C . It is usually denoted by X L.

* = (16.12)

If V ^ s is rms value of the alternating voltage across an

inductance and l„.x. the rms value of the current passing
through it. the value of X L is given by

Iiltnrirstinp Information X ”* 2 x fL <oL (16.13)

u
T h e reactance of a coil, therefore, depends upon the
frequency of the A .C . and the inductance L. It is directly
proportional to both /and L .L is expressed in henry, /in hertz,
and X in ohms. It is to be noted that inductance and
capacitance behave oppositely as a function of frequency. If /
is low X L is smaH but X c is large. F o r high /. X L is large but X c is
small. T h e behaviour of resistance is independent of
frequency
Rofem ng to Fig. 16.10 (b). it can be seen that no power is
dissipated in a pure inductor. In the first quarter of cycle both V
and / are positive so the power is positive, which means
energy is supplied to inductor. In the second quarter. V is
positive but / is negative. N ow power is negative which implies
that energy is returned by the inductor. Again in third quarter, it
receives energy but returns the sam e amount in the fourth
IrrXKtcn t f « m tires So
p«rio>m a wide v«n«ty functfon* in quarter. Th u s, there is no net change of energy in a complete
tvsi-rt-w end indusSry. cycle. Since an inductor coil does not consum e energy, the
.coil is often employed for controlling A .C . without consumption
o f e n e r m ^ S u c h a n in d u c t e n c e c a lis k T O w n a s c M ^ ^ ^ ^
im p e d a n c e H H B H H H H H
W e already know that resistance R offers opposition to tho
flow of current. In case of A .C . a n inductance L or a
capacitance C also offer opposition to the flow of A .C . which
is m easured by reactances X L and X t respectively. A n A .C .
circuit m ay consist of a resistance R , a n inductance L , a
capacitance C or a combination of these elements. T h e
com bined effect of resistance and reactancos in such a
circuit is known as im pedance and is denoted by 2 .
It is measured by the ratio of the rm s value of the apphod
voltage to the rm s value of Moulting A C . Th u s

(1 6 1 4 )

120
It is also ex p re sse d in o h m s.

E x a m p l e 1 6 .3 : W h e n 10 V a re ap plie d to a n A .C . circuit, the

current flowing in it is 1 0 0 m A . F in d its im pedance.

S o lu tio n :

rm s va lu e of applied voltage = 10 V

rm s va lu e of current = / „ = 1 0 0 m A = 100 x 10' A

v -. 1° v in n o
Im p o d a n c e Z * u ~ 100 x 1 0 ’ A “

16.7 R - C A N D R - L S E R IE S C IR C U ITS
C o n s id e r a s e rie s netw ork of resistance R a nd a capacitor C
excited b y a n alternating voltage ( F i g .16.11 a ). A s R a n d C
are in series, the s a m e current w o u ld flow through e a ch of
them. If /^, is th e v a lu e of cu rre n t, the potential difference
a cross the resistance R w ou ld b e / „ . R a n d it w ou ld be in
ph a se with current / T h o vector d ia g ra m of tho voltage and
current is s h o w n in Fig.16.11 (b ). Ta k in g the current a s
reference, the potential difference L . R ac ro s s tho resistance
is represented b y a line a lon g th e current line because
potential d ro p R is in p h a se wixh current. T h e potential
difference a c ro s s the capacitor will b e / _ X c = / „. / <->C. A s
<•)
this voltage la gs the current b y 9 0 ". s o the line representing
the vector / _ / coC is d ra w n at right a n g le s to the current line
(Fig.16 .11 b).

T h e appltod v d t a g e V that will s e n d the current / in the

circuit is ob ta -ne d b y the resultant of the vectors /_. R and
/ ■ i.e..
«C

Flfl 16.11

Im p eda nce Z (1 6 1 5 )
< t»c y

It can b e s e e n in Fig. 16.11 (b ) that th e current and the applied

voltage a re not in ph a se . T h e c u n e n t leads the applied
voltage b y a n angle 0 s u c h that

12 !
 8 = tan (1 6.16 )
w
E q .16.15 suggests that we can find the im pedance of a
series A C . circuit by vector addition. T h e resistance R is
represented by a horizontal line in the direction of currenl

which is taken as reference. T h e reactance X c - — is

wC
show n by a line lagging the R - line by 9<r (Fig. 16.11 c ). Th e
im pedance 2 of the circuit is obtained by the vector
summation of resistance and reactance. Fig. 16.11 (c ) is
known as impedance diagram of the circuit. T h e an gle which
the lino representing the impedance 2 makes with R line
gives the phase difference between the voltage and current.
In Fig.16.11(c). the current is leading the voltage applied by
a n angle

N o w we will calculate the impedance of a R - L series circuit

by drawing its impedance diagram . Fig.16.12 (a ) show s an
R - L series circuit excited by a n A .C . source o f frequency o>.
Th e current is token a s reference, so rt is represented by a
horizontal line. Resistance R is drawn along this line because
the potential drop / „ R is in phase with current. A s the
potential across the inductance V L = / _ X t = (<»L) leads
(•) the current by 90*. so the vector line of reactance X L = o>L is
draw n at right angle to P i n e (F ig . 16.12 b). T h e im pedance Z
of the circuit is obtained by the vector sum of R and <»L lines.
Thus
Z - v R * ♦ (< »L f

T h e angle o = tan ' 1 — which Z makes with R line gives the

phase difference between the applied voltage and current. In

this case the voltago leads the current by 0*. B y comparing
the .m pedance diagrams of R ■ C and L - R circuits it can be
seen that the vectcr linos of reactances X c and X L are
directed opposite to tach other with R a s reference.

16.8 PO W ER IN A .C . CIR CU ITS

T h e expression for power is P = V C ./ .,. Th is expression is true
in case of A C . d ro its , only when V a n d / are in phase as in

• 122
case of a purely resistive drey*. W e have already seen that the
pow er dissipation in a pore inductive or in a pure capacitance
drcuit is zero. In these cases the current lags or leads tho
applied vottago by 90* and com ponent of applied voltage
vector V along the current vector is ze ro (Fig. 16.9 c and
16.10 c ). In A .£ . drcuit the phase difference between applied
voltage t/and the current / _ i s 0 (Fig.16.11 b and 16.12 b). T h e
com ponent of V along current / _ is cosQ. Actually it is this
com ponent of voltage vector which is in phase with current. S o
the power dissipated in A C . drcuit

P = L x V „ cos0 .............. (1 6 .1 7 )

T h e factor cosG is kno w n a s po w e r factor.

E x a m p le 1 6 .4 : A t w hat frequency will an inductor of
1.0 H h ave a rea ctan ce of 5 0 0 O ?
S o lu tio n :
L = 1 .0 H . X t «5 0 0 fi
D o You K n o w ?
X L * o f. = 2 n tL - 5 0 0 O
5000 5000
/ c 2xfL 2 x x 1 .0 H =80Hz

E x a m p l e 1 6 .5 : A n iron c o re coil of 2 .0 H a n d 5 0 0 is placed

in series with a resistance of 4 5 0 0 . A n A .C . supp ly of 100 V.
5 0 H z is con nected across the drcuit. F in d (i) the current
flow ing in the coil, (ii) p h a se angle b e tw e e n the current and
voltage.
A <M*ctor « u M d to local*
tum*0 m*ttic6 t*ct»
S o lu tio n :

R esistance = R » 500 *4500 = 5000

In du ctan ce = L = 2 .0 H
S u p p ly voltage = V _ 3 100 V

F re q u e n c y = f= 5 0 H z
T h e reactance = X l = o>f. = 2 x f/.

= 2 x 3.14 x 5 0 s ' x 2 .0 H = 6 2 8 0
Im p eda nce « Z = y R 2 » ( « of.)2

= V (5 0 0 O ) ’ ♦ (6 2 8 O ) 2 = 8 0 3 O
V - 100 V
C u rre n t / „ = 0 .0 1 2 4 5 A = 1 2 .4 5 m A
Z . 803Q
.(cof.
P h a s e difference 0 = tan

12 3
 f 628 Q 'l
[ s o o n ] ' 5 ' 5'
E x a m p le 1 6 .6 : A circuit consists of a capacitor of 2 p F and a
resistance of 1000 Q connected in series. A n alternating
voltage of 12 V ar>d frequency 50 H z is applied. Find (I) tho
current in tho circuit, and (ii) the average pow er supplied.
S o lu tio n :

Resistance = R = 1000 O

Capacitance = C = 2 p F = 2 X 1 0 "* F
Frequency = /= 50 H z
!_
Reactance c j [Link]

------------------------- --------------------- t — = 1592 n

2 x 3 .1 4 x 5 0 s x 2 x 10 F

Im pedance Z fe * * (X cf

-> / (1 O O O n ), * (1 5 0 2 f r )2 = 1 8 8 0 0

w 12 V
Current = U ■~ = 0 .0 0 6 4 A = 6 .4 m A
Z 18800

Phaso Difference 0 - tan ' 1 tan 1 ! = 57.87°

R 1.1000 f l )

Avorage pow er = V _ /„, cosO

= 12 V x 0.0064 A x 0.532 = 0.04 W

Consider a R - L - C series circuit which is excited by an

alternating voltage sourer; w hoso frequency coukJ be varied
(F ig. 16.13 a). T h e imped an co diagram of the circuit is shown
in Fig. 16.13 (b). A s expla ined earlier, the inductive reactance
V 1
Xt = mL and capacitor reactance x c = are directed

opposite to each other. W h en the frequency of A C . source is

very small * c ^ jS m uch greater than X L * t»L. S o tho

capacitance dom inates at low frequencies and the circuit

124
b e h a v e s like a n R - C circuit. A t high frequencies X t = «>L is

m u ch greater than X c = ~ . In this c a s e the inductance

* -uL • ■
dom inates a n d the circuit b e h a v e s like R - L circuit. In
betw een the se freq uen cie s there will b e a freq uen cy ta, at
w h ich X L = X c . T h is condition is called reson ance. T h u s at * -= c
reson ance the inductive reactance be in g equal a n d opposite (b>
to capa citor reactance, cancel e a ch o ther a n d the im p e d a n ce
d ia gram a s s u m e s the form (F ig . 16.13 c ). T h e v a lu e of the
reson ance freq uen cy can be obtained b y putting

a’L a ^ c
2 1 1 («)
or
or FI 9 16.13
= LC T l c

or f, (1 6 .1 8 )
2 7 \ iC

T h e following a re the properties of the series resonance,

i) T h e re s o n a n c e frequency is giv e n by

'-'d t c
T h e im p e d a n ce of the circuit at resonance is resistive
s o the current a n d voltage a re in ph ase. T h e p o w e r
factor is 1 .

i:i) T h o im p e d a n c e of the circuit is m in im um a t this

froq uon cy a n d it is equal to R .

iv ) If the am plitude of the s o u rce voltage V , is constant,

the c u rre n t is a m axim um at the reson ance freq uen cy
an d its v a lu e is V0 / R . T h e variation of current with the
fre q u e n c y is s h o w n in Fig. 16.14.

v) A t re s o n a n c e V L, the voltage d ro p across inductance

Flfl. 16.14
an d V c the voltage d ro p ac ro s s capa citan ce m a y be
m u ch la rg er than the so u rc e voltage.

16.10 P A R A L L E L R E S O N A N C E C IR C U IT
F ig 16 15 s h o w s a n L - C parallel circuit It is excited b y an
alternating s o u rce of voltage w h o s e frequency could be
va rie d T h e inductance cod L has a resistance r w h ich is
negligibly sm all T h e capacitor d ra w s a leading current

12 5
 whereas the cotl draws a tagging current T h e circuit
resonates at a frequency <•>= to, which makes X t = X c . so that
the two branch currents are equal but opposite H ence, they
L C cancel out with the result that the current draw n from the
supply is zero In actual practice, the current is not zero but
has a m inimum value due to small resistance r of the coil
Properties of parallel resonant circuits ar^
i) Resonance frequency is ^ ~ z — 772
Illvl-Vs

rtg H I S '■) At the resonance frequency, the orcuil impedance is

maximum. It is resistive,
in) A t the resonance the current is minimum and it is in
phase with the applied voltage. S o the power factor «s
one. T h e variation of current with the frequency of the
source is shown in Fig. 16.16.
iv) At resonance, the branch currents /L and /c m ay each
be larger than the source current /,.

E x a m p le 1 6 .7 : Find the capacitance required to construct a

resonance circuit of frequency 1000 k H z with an inductor of
5m H.

S o lu t io n :

R esonance frequency f * 1000 kHz

'i t 1» 1« L = 5 m H = 5 x 10 3 H C=?
1
Resonance frequency = I ■

4 **<*£. 4 x(3 .1 4 )* x (10* 8 ' f xx 5 x 1 0 * H 509pF

1
W o have already studied that an A .C . generator consists of a
coil with a pair of slip rings. A s the cod rotates an alternating
voltage is generated across the slip rings. In a three phase
A .C . generator, instead of one coil, there are three coils
inclined at 1 2 0 * to each other, each connected to its own pair
of slip rings. W h e n this combination of three coils rotate in the
magnetic field, each coil generates an alternating voltage
•across its ow n pair of slip rings. Th u s , three alternating
voltages are generated. T h e phase difference between these
voltages is 120°. It m eans that when voltage across the first

126
jair of slip rings is zero, having a phase of 0 . the voltage
jcross the second pair of slip rings would not be zero but it
vill have a phase of 120*. Similarly at this instant the voltage
jenerated across the third pair will havo a phase 240'. Th is is
shown in Fig. 16.17. T h e m achine, instead of having six
erm inals. two for each pair of slip rings, has only four
erm inals because the starting point of all the three coils has a
x m m o n junction which is often earthed to the shaft of the
jenerator and the other three ends of the coils are connected
x> three separate terminals o n the m achine. Th e se four
:erminals along with the lines and coils connected to them are
>hown in Fig .16.18. T h e voltage across each of lines
connected to terminals A . B . C and the neutral line is 230 V.
Because of 1 2 0 ” phase shift, the voltage across any two lines
s about 400 V. T h e main advantage of having a three phase
iupp ly is that the total load of the house or a factory is divided
n three parts, so that none of the line is over loaded. If heavy
oad consisting of a num ber of air conditioners and motors
ate., is supplied pow er from a singlo phase supply, its voltage
s likely to drop at full load. Moreover, the throe phase supply
also provides 400 V which can be used to operate som e
special appliances requiring 400 V for their operation.

16.12 PRINCIPLE O F M ETA L D E TE C TO R S

A coil and a capacitor are electrical components which
togother can produce oscillations of current. A n L ■ C circuit
behaves just like an oscillating m ass - spring system. In this
case energy oscillates between a capacitor and an inductor.
The circuit is called an electrical oscillator. Tw o such
oscillators A and B are used in the operation of a com m on
type of metal detector (F ig. 16.19). In the absence of any
nearby
OKMHoronxHB OicAMy o-oMA

127
metal object, the inductances L A and Lj, are the sam e and
hence the resonance frequency of the two circuits is also
sam e. W h e n the inductor B. called the search coil com es
near a metal object, its inductance decreases and
corresponding oscillator frequency increases and thus a
beat note is heard in the attached speaker. S uch detectors
are extonsivcly used not only for various security checks but
also to locate buried metal objects.

16.13 CH OK E
It is a coil which consists of thick copper wire w ound closely in
a large num ber of turns over a soft iron laminated cores. Th is
makes the inductance L of the coil quite large whereas its
resistance R is ve ry small. Th u s it consum es extrem ely small
power. It is used in A .C . circuits to limit current with extremely
small wastage of energy as com pared to a resistance or a
rheostat

16.14 E L E C TR O M A G N E TIC W AVES

It is a very important class of w aves which requires no
m edium for transmission and which rapidly propagates
through vacuum .
In 1864 British physicist Ja m e s Clark Maxwell formulated a
set of equations known as Maxwell's equations which
e x pla ined the various electrom a gne tic ph e nom en a.
According to these equations, a changing magnetic flux
creates an electric field and a changing electric flux creates a
magnetic field. C onsider a region of space A B as show n in
Fig. 16.20. Suppose a change of magnetic flux is taking place
through it. Th is changing magnetic flux will set up a changing
electric flux in the surrounding region. T h e creation of electric
field in the region C D will cause a change of electric flux
through it due to which a m agnetic field would be set u p in the
space surrounding C D and so on. T h u s each field generates
the other and the whole package of electric and magnetic
fields will m ove along propelling itself through space. Such
m oving electric and m agnetic fields are know n as
electromagnetic waves Th e electric field, magnetic field and
the direction of their propagation are mutually orthogonal
(Fig. 16.21). It can be seen in this figure that the
electromagnetic w aves are periodic, hence they have a
wavelength /. which is given b y the relation c = f). w here ( is
the frequency and c is the speed of the w ave. In free space
the speed of electromagnetic w aves is 3 x 10* m s'1.

128
Depending upon the values of wavelength and frequency,
the electromagnetic w ave s have been classified into different
types of waves a s radiowaves, microwaves, infrared rays,
visible light etc. Fig. 16.22 shows the complete spectrum of

^ ^ s p e c tru m _^—

i -o -o i n c y T V and M u u i l l K . l i P W P ra*«6on X-rays ray*

AU ru «no
*JO rado ceso '« • >

w ter icr 10" 10" 10" 10"

,0 '
10* Iff Iff Iff tO* W 10' 10* 10- 10" 10
(irewe)
d e o t w n g wavelengei

F ig . t i n
T h o electromagnet.: * p e«rum

Electromagnetic w ave s from the low radio w aves to high

Tit-bits
frequency gam m a rays.

16.15 PRINCIPLE O F GEN ERATIO N,

TRANSM ISSIO N AN D R ECEPTIO N
O F E L E C TR O M A G N E TIC WAVES
W e have seen that electromagnetic w aves are generated
when electric or magnetic flux is changing through a certain
region of space. A n electric charge at rest gives rise to a
Coulom b's field which do es not radiate in space because no
change of flux takes place in this type of field. A charge
S h a k e an e le ctrica lly c h a r g e
moving with constant velocity is equivalent to a steady object to and Fro. and you produce
olectrcmagnet waves
current which generates a constant magnetic field in the
 surrounding space, but such a field also does not radiate out
because no changes of magnetic flux are involved. Th u s only
chance to generate a w ave of moving field is when we
accelorate the electrical charges.

A radio transmitting antenna provides a good example of

generating electromagnetic w aves by acceleration of
charges. T h e piece of wire along which charges are m ade to
accelerate is known as transmitting antenna (F ig. 16.23). It is
charged b y an alternating source of potential of frequency t
and time period T. A s the charging potential alternates, the
charge on the antenna also constantly roverses. For
exam ple if the top has ♦ q charges at an y instant, then after
time 77 2 the charge on it will be - q. S uch regular reversal of
O o You Know ? charges on the antenna gives rise to an electric flux that
constantly changes with frequency f. Th is changing electric
flux sets up an electromagnetic w a v e which propagates out
in space aw ay from the antenna. T h e frequency with which
the fields alternate is always equal to the froqucncy of the
source generating them. Th e se electromagnetic waves
which are propagated out in space from antenna of a
transmitter are known as radio w aves. In free space these
w aves travel with the speed of light.

Suppose these w aves impinge on a piece of wire (Fig. 16.24).

T h e electrons in the wire m ove under the action of the
oscillating electric field which give rise to an alternating
MCond. they produced redo were* voltage across the wire. T h e frequency of this voltage is the
having frequency 94 tttt
sam e as that of the w ave intercepting the wire. Th is wire
receiving the wave is known a s receiving antenna. A s the
electric field of the w ave is very w eak at a distance of m any
kilometres from tho transmitter, the voltage that appears
across the receiving antenna is very small. E a ch transmitter
propagates radio w aves of one particular frequoncy. So
w h e n a n u m b e r of tra n sm ittin g sta tio n s op erate
simultaneously, we have a num ber of radio waves of different
frequencies in the space. Th u s the voltage that appears
across a receiving antenna placed in space is usually due to
the radio waves of large num ber of frequencies. T h e voltage
of one particular frequency can be picked up by connecting
an inductance L and a variable capacitor C in parallel with
one end of the receiving antenna (F ig. 16.24).

If one adjusts the value of the capacitor so that the natural

frequency of L ■ C circuit is the sam e as that of the
transmitting station to be picked up. the circuit will resonate

130
 u n d e r the d riv in g a c tio n of th e a n te n n a . C o n s e q u e n tly , the
L - C circuit w ill b u ild u p a la rg e r e s p o n s e to the a c tio n o f o n ly
' that ra d io w a v e to w h ic h it is tu n e d . In y o u r r a d io r e c e iv e r set
w h e n y o u c h a n g e stations y o u a c tu a lly a d ju st th e v a lu e o f C .

16.16 M O D U L A T IO N
S p e e c h a n d m u s ic e tc . a re tra n s m itte d h u n d re d o f k ilo m e tre s
a w a y b y a ra d io transm itter. T h e s c e n e in front o f a tele visio n
c a m e r a is a ls o s e n t m a n y k ilo m e tre s a w a y to v ie w e rs . In all F o r Y o u r In form atio n
th e s e u s e s , th e c a rrie r o f th e p r o g ra m m e is a h ig h fre q u e n c y
ra d io w a v e . T h e in fo rm a tio n i.e .. light, s o u n d o r o th e r d a ta is
im p re s s e d o n th e r a d io w a v e a n d is c a rrie d a lo n g w ith it to the
d e stina tion .

M o d u la tio n is th e p ro c e s s o f c o m b in in g the lo w fre q u e n c y

s ig n a l w ith a h ig h fre q u e n c y ra d io w a v e ca lle d c a rrie r w a v e .
T h e resultan t w a v e is ca lle d m o d u la te d ca rrie r w a v e . T h e lo w
fre q u e n c y s ig n a l is k n o w n a s m o d u la tio n s ig n a l. M o d u la tio n
is a c h ie v e d b y c h a n g in g the a m p litu d e o r th e fre q u e n c y o f the
c a rrie r w a v e in a c c o rd a n c e w ith the m o d u la tin g s ig n a l. T h u s
w e h a v e tw o t y p e s of m o d u la tio n s w h ic h a re

1. A m p litu d e m odu lation (A .M ), 2. F re q u e n c y m odulation (F .M )

A m p lit u d e M o d u la tio n
m m s m m
carrier wave
In this t yp e of m o d u la tio n the a m p litu d e o f th e c a rrie r w a v e is
in c re a s e d o r d im in is h e d a s the a m p litu d e of th e s u p e rp o s in g
m o d u la tin g s ig n a l in c re a s e s a n d d e c re a s e s .

F ig . 1 6 .2 5 (a ) re p re se n ts a h ig h fre q u e n c y ca rrie r w a v e of
c o n sta n t a m p litu d e a n d fre q u e n c y. F ig . 1 6 .2 5 (b ) re p re se n ts a a A AI
lo w o r a u d io fre q u e n c y s ig n a l o f a sin e w a v e fo rm .
ampMudo modiXatod wave
F ig .1 6 .2 5 ( c ) s h o w s the result o b ta in e d b y m o d u la tin g
th cca rrie r w a v e s w ith th e m o d u la tin g w a v e . T h e A .M . Fig. 16Z5
tra n s m is sio n f re q u e n c ie s r a n g e from 5 4 0 k H z to 1 6 0 0 k H z .

F r e q u e n c y M o d u la tio n
VAIUUM (M l
In this type o f m odulation the fre q u e n cy o f the carrier w a v e is
increased o r dim inish e d a s the m odulating signal am plitude
« c r e a s e s o r d e c re a s e s but the carrier w a v e am plitude rem ains
c on stan t. F ig . 1 6 .2 6 s h o w s fre q u e n c y m odu lation. T h e
freq uen cy of the m odu lated carrier w a v e is highest (p oint H )
t r.
w h e n the signal am plitude is a t its m a x im u m positive v a lu e a n d
o m M iU A A A / lM IM M A
is a t its lowest freq uen cy (point L ) w h e n signal am plitude has fiiV m lV V V v i n f n m i
m a x im u m negative. W h e n the signal am plitude is ze ro , the frequency mmtuuted wave
carrier fre q u e n cy is a t its norm al fre q u e n cy f„

131
 Th e F.M. transmission frequencies are much higher and ranges
between 88 M H z to 108 M Hz. F.M. radio waves are affected
less by electrical interference than A. M. radio waves and hence,
provide a higher quality transmission of sound. However, they
have a shorter range than A M waves and are less able to
travel around obstacles such as hSs and large buildings.

a m
Alternating current is that which is produced by a voltage source w hose polarity
keeps on reversing with time.

• T h e time interval during which the voltage source changes its polarity once is known
as period T of the alternating current or voltage.
T h e value of voltage or current that exists in a circuit at an y instant of time measured
from som e reference point is known as its instantaneous value.
T h e highest value reached by the voltage or current in one cycle is called the peak
value of the voltage or current.
T h e sum of positive and negative peak values is called peak to peak value and is
written as p -p value.
T h e root mean square value (rm s ) is the square root of the average value of V ‘or /’.
T h e angle 0 which specifies the instantaneous value of the alternating voltage or
current, gives the phase lag or phase lead of o n e quantity over the other.
A n inductor is usually in the form of a coil or a solenoid wound from a thick wire so
that it has a large value of self inductance and has negligible resistance.
T h e com bined effect of resistance and reactance in a circuit is known as impedance
and is denoted b y Z .
Choke is a coil which consists of thick copper wire wound closely in a large number
of turns over a soft iron laminated core.
• Electrom agnetic w aves are thoso which require no medium for transmission and
rapidly propagate through vacuum .
Modulation is the process of com bining tho low frequency signal with a high
frequency radio w ave, called carrier waves. T h e resultant wave is called modulated
carrier w ave.

I r l 'i m w

Asinusoidal current has rms value of 10 A W hat is the maxim um or peak value?

132
16 2 N a m e the d e vic e that will perm it flow o f direct current but op p o s e the flow of
alternating current permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.

16 .3 H o w m a n y tim es per second will a n incan de scen t la m p reach m axim um brilliance

w h e n c o n nected to a 5 0 H z source?

16.4 A circuit contains a n iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D .C . source arran ged in
series. T h e sw itch is closed and after a n interval reop en ed . Exp la in w h y a spark
ju m p s ac ro s s the switch contacts?

16 5 H o w d o e s doubling the frequency affect the reactance of an inductor

a capacitor?

16 6 In a R - L circuit, will the current la g o r le ad the voltage? Illustrate yo u r an sw er

b y a vector diagram .

16.7 A choke cod placed in series with a n electric la m p a n A C . circuit causes the lam p to
be com e dim . W h y is it so? A variable capacitor ad ded in series m this circuit m a y be
adjusted until the lamp glow s with norm al brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?

Explain the conditions under w hich electrom agnetic w a v e s a re produced from a y

s o urce?
16 9 H o w the reception of a particular rad io station is selected o n yo u r rad io set?

16 10 W h a t is m e a n t b y A .M . and P.M .?

G 2 3 E E J
A n alternating current is represented b y the equation / = 2 0 sin 100 itf. C o m p u te its
frequency a n d the m a xim u m and rm s v a lu e s of current. ( A n s : 5 0 H z . 2 0 A . 14 A )

16 2 A sinusoidal A .C . has a m axim um valu e of 1 5 A W h a t are its rm s va lu e s ? If the time

is recorde d from the instant the current is z e ro and is be com in g positive, w hat is the
instantaneous value of the current after 1 /3 0 0 s. giv e n the frequency is 5 0 H z.
(A n s : / , = 1 0 . 6 A . Instantaneous current = 13.0 A )

F in d the value of the current and inductive reactance w h e n A .C . voltage of 2 2 0 V at

5 0 H z is pa ssed through a n inductor of 10 H . (A n s : / _ = 0 .0 7 A . X L = 3 1 4 0 O )

16 4 A circuit ha s an inductance of 1/n H a n d resistance of 2 0 0 0 O . A 5 0 H z A . C . is

supplied to it. C a lcula te the reactance a n d im p e d a n ce offered b y the circuit.
( A n s : X L= 100 O . Z = 2 0 0 2 .5 0 )

16 5 A n inductor of pure inductance 3/n H is co n nected in series with a resistance of 4 0 O .

F in d (i) the peak value of the current tho rm s value, a n d (Hi) the ph a se difference
betw een the current a n d the applied voltage V = 3 5 0 sin(1 OOit t).
(A n s : (i) 1.16 A . (ii) 0.81 A . (iii) 8 2 .4 ‘ )

A 10 m H , 2 0 O coil is connected ac ro s s 2 4 0 V a n d 180 I z H z source. H o w m u c h

p o w e rd o e s it dissipate? (A n s : 2 7 7 8 W )

133
 F in d the v a lu e of the c urrent flowing thro ugh a capa citan ce 0 .5 p F w h e n connected
to a source o f 150 V at 5 0 H z . (A n s :/ nm= 0 .0 2 4 A )

A n alternating so u rc e of em f 12 V a n d freq uen cy 5 0 H z is applied to a capacitor of

capacitance 3 p F in series with a resistor of resistance 1 k O , C a lcula te the phase
angle. (A n s : 46.7*)

W h a t is the resonant freq uen cy of a circuit w hich includes a coil o f inductance 2.5 H
a n d a capa citan ce 4 0 p F ? (A n s : 15 .9 H z )

16 1 A n inductor of inductance 150 p H is c o n nected in parallel with a variable capacitor

w h o s e capacitance c a n b o c h a n g e d from 500 p F to 2 0 pF. C a lcula te the m axim um
freq uen cy a n d m in im um freq uen cy for w h ich the circuit can b e tu n e d .
(A n s : 2.91 M H z . 0 .5 8 M H z )

13 4