NERVOUS SYSTEM middle layer is called the arachnoid mater, and the

delicate inner layer is called the pia mater.

Overview of Nervous System
The cranial and spinal meninges (singular: meninx) are
Endocrine and Nervous system maintain internal
three membrane layers in the central nervous system
coordination
that protect and isolate parts of the central nervous
- Endocrine system – communicates by means of system, both physically and against chemical and
chemical messengers (hormones) secreted into microbial damaging factors.
the blood
The hard outermost layer, closest to your skull is the dura
- Nervous system – employs electrical and
mater which consists of two layers in the cranial space.
chemical means to send messages from cell to
These two layers (endosteal and meningeal layers) are
cell
closely fused except for some areas where they form
Nervous system carries out its task in 3 basic steps: dural venous sinuses. These sinuses collect venous blood.

1. Sense organs receive information about changes The middle, weblike meninx, the arachnoid mater is
in the body and the external environment, and separated from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space,
transmit coded messages to the spinal cord and which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Protrusions of the
the brain arachnoid mater through the dura mater are
2. Brain and spinal cord processes this information called arachnoid granulations at the site of the venous
relates it to past experiences, and determine sinuses. These granulations are filled with cerebrospinal
what response is appropriate to the fluid, letting it be absorbed into the venous blood.
circumstances
The innermost layer, the pia mater is delicate, and covers
3. Brain and spinal cord issue commands to muscles
the brain and the spinal cord tightly, including all folds
and gland cells to carry out such a response
and spreading into even the deepest grooves.
Two Major Anatomical Subdivisions of Nervous System
Cerebrospinal Fluid - is a body fluid that surrounds the
brain and spinal cord within the arachnoid space. It has a
volume of 120 to 250 ml in humans. Because the brain
and spinal cord are virtually floating in CSF, this
arrangement effectively protects the brain from
traumatic effects.

CSF is formed by choroid plexuses - which are found in

the brain ventricles. It circulates in the ventricles, the
subarachnoid space, and the central canal of the spinal
cord. It’s reabsorbed into the venous circulation through
the arachnoid granulations.
Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
enclosed in bony coverings (enclosed by cranium and Blood-brain barrier - This barrier plays a significant role
vertebral column) in maintaining the homeostasis of the nervous system,
nourishing it, and protecting it from harmful substances
BRAIN and pathogens.
The BRAIN is responsible for multiple cognitive functions Parts of the Human Brain
and has a role in regulating your movement, your body’s
homeostasis, the endocrine balance, and vegetative The human brain is generally divided into the following
functions. Thin membrane layers called meninges main parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the
surround it, and it is suspended in cerebrospinal fluid. diencephalon, and the brainstem.

Protection of the Central Nervous System • Cerebrum - largest part of your brain, forms the
cerebral cortex, which consists of two hemispheres
(left and right) of your brain. It is responsible for the
perception and integration of sensory information,
control of motor functions, and complex functions
such as language, memory, and personality.

The surface of the hemispheres is covered by a 2-4

mm thick layer of gray matter (consists mainly of cell
bodies of the neurons), the cerebral cortex
enveloping the internal white matter (built up of
mainly myelinated axons—which gives its whiteness),
which consists of tracts carrying impulses. Deep
The brain and spinal cord are also covered by three layers within the white matter, we can also find the basal
of thin membranes, called meninges. The most nuclei, which are islands of gray matter.
superficial meningeal layer is called the dura mater, the
The surface of the cerebrum has a wrinkled, walnut-
like appearance. The folds are called gyri (singular:
 gyrus). The deep furrows between gyri are the parieto-occipital sulcus. There is no clear
called fissures, while the shallower furrows are anatomical landmark that separates the temporal and
called sulci (singular: sulcus). Many of the sulci, occipital lobes.
fissures, and gyri are important anatomical
landmarks, such as the longitudinal fissure, that The occipital lobe is where the primary visual
divides the cerebrum into the left and right perception begins, interpreting information of the
hemispheres. These hemispheres are connected by a eyes, such as motion, form, and color. Damage
thick bundle of axon fibers, the corpus callosum, affecting this area could lead to vision impairment.
which allows communication between the two
hemispheres. 4. Temporal Lobe - close to your ear level on the side of
your skull. The lateral sulcus (or Sylvian fissure)
separates it from the frontal lobe.

This lobe is associated with auditory and visual

processing and the formation of conscious and long-
term memory.

At the end of the lateral sulcus is Wernicke’s area. This

area is responsible for language comprehension.
Damage in this area leads to Wernicke’s aphasia, or
receptive aphasia, during which the person is not able
to understand the content of the language.
The cerebral cortex has functionally different areas,
which we separate into four • Cerebellum - The cerebellum (or little brain) is
lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobe posterior to the brainstem and is the second-largest
brain structure. It coordinates skilled motor
movements and is responsible for maintaining
balance, and posture.
• Diencephalon - The diencephalon is a small structure
of the brain, superior to the brainstem and
surrounded by cerebral hemispheres. It’s a crucial site
for relaying impulses and controlling the autonomic
nervous system. It’s also the area that regulates body
temperature, hunger, thirst, emotional patterns, and
a 24-hour natural body cycle called the circadian
rhythm.

1. Frontal Lobe - is the largest lobe, located behind your The diencephalon consists of many smaller parts, the
forehead. It is separated from the parietal lobe by the two most important are the thalamus and
central sulcus. hypothalamus. The thalamus relays sensory impulses
towards the cerebrum.
This lobe is mainly responsible for motor functions.
The premotor cortex is associated with planning The hypothalamus is small, about the size of an
voluntary movements, while the primary motor almond, and sits above your brainstem. It is below
cortex is involved in initiating these motor (hypo) the thalamus. It has various functions; it
movements. controls the autonomic nervous system, regulates
body temperature, hunger, and thirst, and also
The prefrontal cortex is responsible for planning, produces two hormones: ADH and oxytocin. The
judgment, decision making, memory, and maybe hypothalamus is also a commander of the pituitary
personality. The frontal lobe also contains Broca’s gland, which releases essential hormones.
area. This area is associated with speech production,
so if this area is damaged that patient will suffer • Brainstem - The brainstem is continuous with the
from Broca’s aphasia or expressive aphasia, meaning spinal cord and responsible for vital, unconscious
they won’t be able to create fluent speech. functions such as breathing, regulating the heartbeat,
blood pressure, and other important functions. It’s a
2. Parietal Lobe - located in the upper back area of your passageway for ascending and descending tracts.
skull, separated from the frontal lobe by the central Tracts are bundles of neuron axons in the central
sulcus. The parietal lobe and its main region, nervous system. In the peripheral nervous system, the
the primary sensory cortex is mainly associated with same structures are called nerves.
somatosensation, which means it processes
information coming from the body, such as touch, The three structures of the brainstem are the medulla
pain, limb position, and temperature. oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. The medulla is
3. Occipital Lobe - sits above the cerebellum, at the back the most inferior part and it's continuous with the
of the head. It is separated from the parietal lobe by spinal cord. This part regulates vital functions, for
 example, heart rate, breathing rate, and swallowing. Central pattern generators are pools of neurons
As this is such a vital area, injuries to the medulla can providing control of flexors and extensors that cause
lead to breathing irregularities, even failure, and loss alternating movements of the lower limbs
of sensations. - Reflexes – involuntary, stereotyped responses to
stimuli (e.g., withdrawal of hand from pain)
The pons, or in other words, the bridge, lies in the Involves brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
middle segment of the brainstem. Apart from
Surface Anatomy of Spinal Cord
controlling breathing, it mainly houses nerve tracts
that connect various brain parts. A cylinder of nervous tissue that arises from the
brainstem at the foramen magnum of the skull
The midbrain, between the pons and diencephalon, is
involved in processing visual and auditory - It passes through the vertebral canal
information. - Inferior margin end at L1 (Lumbar 1) or a little beyond
- Averages 1.8 cm thick and 45 cm long
- Occupies the upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal
- Gives rise to 31 pair of spinal nerves (first pair passes
between the skull and C1, while the rest pass through
intervertebral foramina)
- Segment – part of the spinal cord supplied by each
pair of spinal nerves
- Longitudinal grooves on anterior and posterior sides
(anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus)
- spinal cord divided into the cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
and sacral regions
- two areas of the cord are thicker than elsewhere
SPINAL CORD
• cervical enlargement – nerves to upper limb
• lumbar enlargement – nerves to pelvic region and
lower limbs
- medullary cone (conus medullaris) – cord tapers to a
point inferior to lumbar enlargement
- cauda equina – bundle of nerve roots that occupy the
vertebral canal from L2 to S5

The spinal cord is a long tubular structure of nervous

tissue present within the vertebral canal. It extends from
the brainstem, throughout the entire body, down to the
lower back (between the first and second lumbar
vertebrae).

It consists of four main regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar,

and sacral. The main function of the spinal cord is to
accept and pass on the electrical signal from the brain to
the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and another way
around, from the PNS to the brain. Meninges of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord’s primary functions are transmitting Meninges – three fibrous connective tissue membranes
various stimuli from the environment and the inside of that enclose the brain and spinal cord
the body to the brain and sending brain “commands” to
the periphery. It is also capable of autonomous activities It separates soft tissue of central nervous system from
such as coordinating reflexes and immediate responses bones of cranium and vertebral canal
to certain stimuli.
From superficial to deep – dura mater, arachnoid mater,
Functions of the Spinal Cord pia mater

- Conduction – bundle of fibers passing information up • Dura Mater – forms loose-fitting sleeve around spinal
and down spinal cord, connecting different levels of cord (dural sheath)
the trunk with each other with the brain
- Locomotion - walking involves repetitive, Surrounded by epidural space filled with fat, blood
coordinated actions of several muscle groups vessels, and loose connective tissue

Epidural anesthesia utilized during childbirth

• Arachnoid mater • posterior (dorsal) root ganglion – contains
Arachnoid membrane – layer of simple squamous the somas of sensory neurons carrying
epithelium lining dura mater and a loose mesh of signals to the spinal cord
collagenous and elastic fibers spanning the gap • six to eight rootlets that enter posterior
between the subarachnoid membrane and the pia horn of cord
mater - anterior (ventral) root is motor output out of
spinal cord
Subarachnoid space – gap between arachnoid • six to eight rootlets that leave spinal cord
membrane and the pia mater. and converge to form anterior root
these merge to form spinal nerve proper that
It is filled with CSF enters intervertebral foramen
- cauda equina – formed from roots that arise
Lumbar cistern – subarachnoid space inferior to from L2 to Co
medullary cone that contains cauda equina and CSF
Damage to Spinal Cord

• Pia mater – translucent membrane that follows the - accidents damage the spinal cord of thousands of
contours of the spinal cord people every year
• paraplegia - paralysis of lower limbs
Terminal filum – fibrous strand of pia mater that • quadriplegia – paralysis of all four limbs
extends beyond the medullary cone within the lumbar respiratory paralysis, loss of sensation or motor
control
Coccygeal ligament – formed from fusion of terminal disorders of bladder, bowel and sexual function
filum and dura mater. Anchors the cord and meninges
to vertebra Co1 - damage to spinal cord from strokes or other brain
injuries
Denticulate ligaments – extend through the • hemiplegia – paralysis of one side of the body
arachnoid to the dura. Anchors spinal cord to limit only
side to side movement

Universal Properties of Neurons

Central area of gray matter shaped like a butterfly and • excitability (irritability) - respond to environmental
surrounded by white matter in 3 columns changes called stimuli
• conductivity - neurons respond to stimuli by
Gray matter – neuron cell bodies with little myelin. Site
producing electrical signals that are quickly
of information processing: synaptic integration
conducted to other cells at distant locations
White matter – abundantly myelinated axons. It carry • secretion - when electrical signal reaches end of
signals from one part of the CNS to another nerve fiber, a chemical neurotransmitter is secreted
that crosses the gap and stimulates the next cell
SPINAL NERVES
Functional Types of Neurons
31 pairs of spinal nerves (mixed nerves)
• sensory (afferent) neurons
- 8 cervical (C1-C8) C1 between skull and atlas –
- specialized to detect stimuli
others exiting at intervertebral foramen
- transmit information about them to the CNS
- 12 thoracic (T1-T12)
- 5 Lumbar (L1-L5) begin in almost every organ in the body and end in CNS
- 5 Sacral (S1 -S5)
afferent – conducting signals toward CNS
- 1 coccygeal (Co)
• interneurons (association) neurons
Proximal branches forming spinal nerves
- lie entirely within the CNS
each spinal nerve has two points of attachment to the
- receive signals from many neurons and carry out
spinal cord
the integrative function
- posterior (dorsal) root is sensory input to spinal cord
 • process, store, and retrieve information and ‘make Schwann cells and myelin sheath enclose axon
decisions’ that determine how the body will
Distal end, axon has terminal arborization
respond to stimuli
• Synaptic knob (terminal button) – little swelling
90% of all neurons are interneurons
that forms a junction (synapse) with the next
lie between, and interconnect the incoming sensory neuron
pathways, and the outgoing motor pathways of the CNS • Contains synaptic vesicles full of neurotransmitter

• motor (efferent) neuron Variation in Neuron Structure

send signals out to muscles and gland cells (the effectors) • Multipolar Neuron
- One axon and multiple dendrites
- motor because most of them lead to muscles
- Most common
- efferent neurons conduct signals away from the CNS
- Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord
Structure of a Neuron • Bipolar Neuron
- One axon and one dendrite
- Olfactory cells, retina, inner ear
• Unipolar Neuron
- Single process leading away from the soma
- Sensory from skin and organs to spinal cord
• Anaxonic Neuron
- Many dendrites but no axon
- Help in visual processes

Neuroglial Cells

About a trillion neurons in the nervous sytem

Neuroglia outnumbered the neurons by as much as 50:1

- Support and protects the neurons

- Bind neurons together and form framework for
• Soma – the control center of the neuron nervous tissue
- In fetus, guide migrating neurons to their destination
Also called neurosoma, cell body, or perikaryon
- If mature, neuron is not in synaptic contacts with
Has a single, centrally located nucleus with large nucleolus another neuron is covered by glial cells
• Prevents neurons from touching each other
Its cytoplasm contains mitochondria, lysosomes, a golgi
• Gives precision to conduction pathways
complex, numerous inclusions, and extensive rough
endoplasmic reticulum and cytoskeleton Myelin
Cytoskeleton consist of dense mesh of microtubules and Myelin sheath – an insulating layer around a nerve fiber
neurofibrils
- Formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann
Has no centrioles – no further cell division cells in PNS
- Consists of the plasma membrane of glial cells (20%
Inclusions – glycogen granules, lipid droplets, melanin,
protein and 80% lipid)
and lipofuscin
Myelination – production of the myelin sheath
• Dendrites – vast number of branches coming from a
few thick branches from the soma - Begins the 14th week of fetal development
- Proceeds rapidly during infancy
Primary site for receiving signals from other neurons
- Completed in late adolescence
The more dendrites the neuron has, the more information - Dietary fat is important to NS development
it can receive and incorporate into decision making
Synapses
Provide precise pathway for the reception and processing
A nerve signal can go no further when it reaches the end
of neural information
of the axon
• Axon (nerve fiber) – originates from a mound on one
- Triggers the release of a neurotransmitter
side of the soma called axon hillock
- Stimulates a new wave of electrical activity in the
It is specialized for rapid conduction of nerve signals to next cell across the synapse
points remote to the soma
Synapse between two neurons
There is only one axon per neuron
- 1st neuron in the signal path is the presynaptic
Axon collaterals – branches of axon neuron (releases neurotransmitter)
- 2nd neuron is postsynaptic neuron (responds to
Axoplasm – cytoplasm of axon neurotransmitter)
Axolemma – plasma membrane of axon
 Presynaptic neuron may synapse with a dendrite, soma,
or axon of the postsynaptic neuron to form axodendritic,
axosomatic or axoaxonic synapses

Neuron can have an enormous number of synapses

- Spinal motor neuron covered by about 10,000

synaptic knobs from other neurons (8,000 ending
on its dendrites; 2,000 ending on its soma)

In cerebellum of brain, one neuron can have as many as

100,000 synapses

Presynaptic neurons have synaptic vesicles with

neurotransmitter and postsynaptic have receptors and
ligand-regulated ion channels

Function of Neurotransmitters at Synapse

- They are synthesized by the presynaptic neuron

- They are released in response to stimulation
- They bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic
cell

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – composed of nerves

and ganglia

- Nerve – a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped

in fibrous connective tissue
- Ganglion – a knot-like swelling in a nerve where
neuron cell bodies are concentrated