Personality

d. Id - refers to the Instincts, or pleasure-seeking drives or impulses. This is present since birth. Id is the unconscious
state of the mind of a person.

The Id is the part of the human psyche responsible for basic instincts and desires, such as hunger, aggression, and
pleasure-seeking impulses. It operates unconsciously and is present from birth, driving a person to seek immediate
gratification without considering reality, logic, or morality. According to Freud, the Id is the most primal part of the mind,
focusing on fulfilling needs and avoiding discomfort.

c. Superego - refers to conscience. It sets the moral standard in consonance with the norms of the society. It is developed
at the age of five

f. Ego - refers to the self. Its function is to balance or to mediate between the id and the superego in the context of
reality.

Types of Personality Conflicts or Anxiety

d. Realistic anxiety - this refers to the feeling of fear towards certain external object, situation, or action, that the society
generally regard as a threat or dangerous to the concerned person. It is what a person feels when a criminal points the
muzzle of his firearm towards him. (Realistic anxiety is the fear a person feels when facing real danger.)

e. Moral anxiety - this is a type of anxiety produced by the tensions between the ego and the superego. In certain times,
the id provokes the ego to resort in unacceptable behaviors causing the superego to regulate the former.

Moral anxiety happens when a person feels guilty or ashamed for thinking or doing something that goes against their
morals. It occurs because the id wants to satisfy desires, but the superego reminds them of right and wrong. This creates
an inner struggle, making the ego feel pressured.

f. Neurotic anxiety - this is produced by the conflict between the id and the ego. This is felt when the impulses of the id
overwhelms the ego. Frustration displacement, losing your temper, and drinking alcohol, are few examples of neurotic
anxiety.

(Neurotic anxiety happens when a person feels out of control because their inner desires (id) are too strong for their self-
control (ego) to handle. This can lead to frustration, sudden anger, or reacting emotionally in stressful situations, like
losing your temper when things don’t go your way.)

Ego Defense Mechanisms

k. Repression - the most fundamental defense mechanism. It is referred to as "motivated forgetting"

l. Denial - this refers to the refusal on the person to accept the reality.

m. Projection - in this defense mechanism, the ego attempts to resolve the tension or discomfort of the individual by
attributing the undesirable thoughts, events, feelings, and motives to another individual. It resembles with the act of
blaming only that in literatures, the former is the most widely used word.

Projection is a defense mechanism where a person blames others for their own negative feelings or actions. Instead of
accepting their own faults, they see them in someone else. For example, if someone is feeling guilty about lying, they
might accuse others of being dishonest.

n. Regression a defense mechanism of the ego in which the person reverts or moves backward in the earlier stages of
development in order to cope with negative situations.

Regression is a defense mechanism where a person goes back to earlier behaviors, like acting childish, to handle stress or
difficult situations. For example, an adult might cry or throw a tantrum when feeling overwhelmed, just like a child
would. This happens because the mind tries to find comfort in familiar, earlier ways of coping.

o. Isolation or Intellectualization this refers to the ego defense mechanism which eliminates the feeling or emotion
associated with a threatening event, object, or person. The strategy is to become emotionless to pursue normal
psychological function.

Isolation or intellectualization is when a person avoids feeling sad or stressed by ignoring their emotions. Instead of
expressing their feelings, they focus only on facts or tasks. For example, if someone loses a loved one, they might talk
about funeral plans without showing any sadness.

p. Sublimation this is the most mature defense mechanism which involves channeling the stress or pain through socially
accepted behavior.
q. Displacement a defense mechanism which is the exact opposite of sublimation. In here the person channels the pain
in a socially unacceptable way.

r. Reaction Formation - this is often called "believing the opposite". A primitive version of sublimation, this ego defense
mechanism changes the anxiety-provoking or unacceptable impulses into acceptable ones. However, unlike sublimation,
reaction formation, reverses the individual's conscious experience making him aware of the opposite feeling.

Reaction formation is when a person feels something but acts the opposite to hide it. For example, if someone is really
angry, they might act extra nice instead. This helps them avoid showing their true emotions.

s. Rationalization a defense mechanism where the ego excuses an inappropriate behavior though a gesture (often an
explanation) that is more acceptable than the real and unconscious motive.

Rationalization is when someone makes excuses for their actions to make them seem more acceptable. Instead of
admitting the real reason for their behavior, they give a reason that sounds better. For example, if a student fails a test,
they might say, "The teacher made the exam too hard," instead of admitting they didn't study enough.

t. Introjection-an ego defense mechanism where the individual imitates the characteristics of another to gain
acceptance.

Fixation

 refers to either inadequate or excessive pleasure, or to the conflicts during the stages of psychosexual
development in which the target of the sexual energy remains attached to an object associated with lower level
of maturity.
 it is the state of being confined or being stuck in a certain stage.

Reasons for being "fixated" (stuck) in a Stage

c. Inadequate fulfillment of the development needs in a certain stage which causes frustration
d. Excessive fulfillment of development needs which causes indulgence

Stages of Psychosexual Development

f. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)- In this stage of psychosexual development, the gratification of the infant focuses on
the mouth. Oral activities like eating, swallowing, hiting and sucking give pleasure.

g. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)- In this stage, the focus of gratification is on the anal region which consists of the
control and the release of feces. The ability of the child to control and heed on parental instruction as to bowel
movement is the key in determining the personality styles of the infant when reaching adulthood.

h. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)- sexual attraction to the parent of opposite sex occurs and that parent of the same sex is
considered as rival or competitor. Gender identity is learned by identifying and mimicking the same sex parent.

Oedipus Complex- a term used to describe to a boy's feeling of jealousy towards their father and the feeling of desire
towards their mother.

Castration anxiety a term used to describe the boy's feeling of fear towards their father. In here, the boy assumed that
his father will take revenge and punish him by castrating him.

Electra complex- a term used to describe girl's desire of affection and love for their dad. However, unlike boys, Freud
(1905) argued that girls are unable to experience castration anxiety. In this stage, girls experienced what Freud called as
"penis envy". Sigmund Freud believed that children do not recognize the external anatomical differences between males
and females prior to the phallic phase.

i. Latent (latency) Stage (6 years to puberty)- This stage takes place when children are at the ages of six to twelve years.
In this stage, the child realizes that desires and affections directed to the parent of opposite sex (boy child to the mother,
girl child to the father) are not feasible. The child shifts his focus towards social skills such as recreation and sports and
becomes occupied with socializing with same-sex peers, refining roles, personal relationships, and sexual identity.

j. Genital Stage (puberty and up) - This stage commences when the child enters the period of puberty - a stage where
the little girl or boy transitioned into adolescence becoming into a sexually matured and a reproductive ready individual.
In this stage, there is an increase of sex hormones resulting to an increase of sexual desire with the opposite sex.

This stage starts when a child reaches puberty, the time when they grow into a teenager. Their body changes, and
they become physically ready to have children. Hormones increase, leading to a stronger attraction to the opposite
sex.
3. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
 suggests that intelligence changes as children grow.
 developed by Jean Piaget - Psychologist
Intelligence refers to the ability to learn, understand, and apply knowledge and skills.

STAGES:
1. SENSORIMOTOR (birth to 2 years old), children learn object permanence, which is the understanding that
people and objects still exist. even when they're out of view.
In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), babies learn through seeing, touching, and moving. They realize that
things still exist even when they can't see them. For example, if you hide a toy, they realize it's still there, even if
it's out of sight.

2. PREOPERATIONAL - in the preoperational stage (2-7 years old), children develop symbolic thought, which is
when they begin to progress from concrete to abstract thinking. Children in this stage often have imaginary
friends.
In the preoperational stage (2-7 years), kids start using symbols and imagination. They think in pictures and may
have imaginary friends.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL - In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old), children solidify their
abstract thinking and begin to understand cause and effect and logical implications of actions.
In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years), kids think more logically. They understand cause and effect and
how actions have consequences.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL (adolescence to adulthood), humans plan for the future, think hypothetically, and
assume adult responsibilities.
In the formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood), people think about the future, solve problems, and
take on adult responsibilities.

4. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 by Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1928]
 a theory which states that morality progress through a series of stages. The sense of right or wrong is entwined
with the person's progression to the stages.

 Delinquent behavior is a result of immaturity in moral development

STAGES
Level 1: Pre-conventional
 in this level, actions and moral reasoning are primarily based on its psychological or physical consequences such
as punishment or reward. In here, a person acts in accordance to the authorities and adults' societal interpretation
of right or wrong. In the pre-conventional level, people decide what is right or wrong based on rewards and
punishments. They follow rules to avoid trouble or get rewards.

Stage 1 - moral actions are based on the obedience of the law to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - moral actions are based on self-interest and sometimes to the interest of others.

Level 2: Conventional
 in this level, moral decision making is based on establishing harmonious relationship with others. The former
interpretation of punishment is no longer the only criterion of which to base the morality or immorality of an act,
but instead an action is adjudged dependent to the expectations of the surrounding individuals.
In the conventional level, people make moral choices based on social expectations and relationships. They want to be
accepted and do what others see as right.

Stage 3 - moral actions are based on the approval or expectations of others. The person chooses to adapt a group and act in
consonance with its culture.

Stage 4 - the stage of law-and-order orientation. The individual recognizes the diversity within the society and view laws
and behavioral percepts as necessary.
Stage 4 is about following rules and laws to keep society organized. People understand that society has different beliefs,
but they see laws as important for order and fairness.

Level 3: Post conventional

 in this stage, moral actions are based on the established principles of the person and moral reasoning is directed
towards justice. In the post-conventional level, people follow their own principles of right and wrong. They focus
on fairness and justice, even if it goes against rules.

Stage 5 - Laws are believed to benefit the greatest number of people (utilitarianism).
 Laws are made to help the most people by promoting overall happiness and well-being. This idea, called
utilitarianism, means that laws should create the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Stage 6 - this is known as the universal ethical consideration. Laws are considered to be vital for the common good of the
many (utilitarianism), however, sometimes there is a need for this to be overridden to benefit others and to adhere
to self-imposed principles
Stage 6 is about following personal moral principles. Laws help most people, but sometimes they need to be set
aside to do what is truly right and fair for others.

5. SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
 ties human development to the society or culture in which people live.
 It focuses on the contributions that society as a whole makes to individual human development.
It highlights how social interactions and cultural influences help individuals grow and learn.
For example, children who are raised to play outdoors develop differently from children who are raised to play
indoors.

6. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

- builds upon the behavioral theory and postulates that people learn best by observing the behavior of others. They
watch how others act, view the consequences, and then make decisions regarding their own behavior accordingly.
Social Learning Theory says people learn by watching others. They observe behaviors, see the results, and
decide how to act based on what they see.

7. ATTACHMENT THEORY
- focuses on the deep relationships between people across their lifetime. An important attachment theory finding is
that children must develop at least one strong bond in childhood to trust and develop relationships as adults.
Attachment theory explains how people form close relationships throughout life. It says that children need at
least one strong bond early on to learn trust and build healthy relationships as they grow up.

STAGES:

1. Asocial or pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks old) - Every young infants are asocial in that many kinds of stimuli,
both social and non-social, produce a favorable reaction, such as a smile.
Newborns up to 6 weeks react happily to people and objects but don’t prefer one over the other. They smile at
anything that interests them.

2. Indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks old to 7 months old)- Infants indiscriminately enjoy human company, and
most babies respond equally to any caregiver. They get upset when an individual ceases to interact with them.
From 3 months infants smile more at familiar faces and can be easily comfortable by a regular caregiver.
From 6 weeks to 7 months, babies like being with people and respond to anyone caring for them. They get upset if
ignored. By 3 months, they smile more at familiar faces and feel comforted by regular caregivers.

3. Specific or discriminate attachment (7-9 months old) special preference for a single attachment figure. The
baby looks to particular people for security, comfort, and protection. It shows fear of strangers (stranger fear) and
unhappiness when separated from a special person (separation anxiety).
From 7 to 9 months, babies form a strong bond with one main caregiver. They seek comfort and security from this
person, fear strangers, and feel upset when separated from them.

4. Multiple attachments (10 months old or later)- The baby becomes increasingly independent and forms several
attachments. By 18 months the majority of infants have formed multiple attachments.
From 10 months onward, babies become more independent and form bonds with multiple people. By 18 months,
most have several attachments.

Growth vs Maturation and Development

1. Growth - It refers to the increase in size, number of cells and it is quantitative improvement. It is not based on
what the person or organism learns but only on maturation.
Growth means getting bigger and increasing in size or number of cells. It happens naturally as a person or living
thing develops, not because of learning.
Simple Meaning: Growth is about getting bigger—like a child growing taller or muscles getting stronger. It
happens naturally as a person or living thing develops.
2. Maturation - It refers to those changes which primarily reveal on unfolding of genetically endowed physical
capacities of the organism. Like' a bud opens and blossoms into a flower, maturation brings out the full potential.
It is not dependent on any special training or environment.
Maturation is the natural growth of a living thing, like a bud turning into a flower. It happens as the body
develops on its own, without special training or environment.
Simple Meaning: Maturation is about natural development, like a baby learning to walk when ready, without
special lessons
 3. Development - It can be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes leading towards the goal of
maturity. It means qualitative changes which are directed towards maturation. Development is considered function
of a product of maturation and learning.
Development means growing and improving over time, becoming more mature and capable.

TWO PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Cephalo-caudal principle - This states that development spreads over the body from head to foot Changes in
structure and function can first be observed in the head, then trunk and finally, the legs.
The cephalo-caudal principle means that growth happens from the head down. A baby develops control over the
head first, then the body, and finally the legs.
Simple Meaning: Growth starts at the head and moves downward. A baby first controls the head, then the body,
and finally the legs.

2. Proximodistal principle - According to this principle, development proceeds from near to far, from the midpoint
of the body to the extremities.
The proximodistal principle means the body develops from the inside out. A baby first controls movements of the
body and arms, then hands, and finally fingers.
Simple Meaning: The body develops inside out. A baby first controls body and arm movements, then hands, and
finally fingers for finer movements.

GENERAL STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Prenatal development - includes all the changes that take place in the womb of the mother. Therefore, it is also
called "intra-uterine development" where the uterus is the environment.

2. Postnatal development - refers to all the stages that follow after the birth till the very end of life

SPECIFIC STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. PRENATAL PERIOD/DEVELOPMENT
o it starts when the sperm or spennatozoan from father unites with a cell called egg or ovum in the mother.
The sperm enters into the layers of walls surrounding the egg and unites with it. This process is called
fertilization or conception. This period occurs within about 270 to 280 days or nine calendar months.
(A baby starts to form when a sperm from the father joins an egg from the mother. The sperm enters the
egg, and this process is called fertilization or conception. This stage lasts about 9 months, or 270 to 280
days.)

STAGES OF PRENATAL PERIOD

1) The period of the zygote: from fertilization to end of two weeks.

2) Period of the embryo: 2 weeks to 2 lunar months.
3) Period of the fetus: end of 2 months till birth.

2. INFANCY
o occurs from birth to the end of the second week. It is the shortest of all developmental periods and is
considered a time of extreme adjustments, thus making it hazardous period.
It is the shortest stage of development and a time of big changes as the baby adjusts to life outside the
womb. Because of this, it is a delicate and risky period.

3. BABYHOOD
o is the stage that follows infancy and extends between two weeks to two years. In this stage the baby is
expected to learn to walk by two years, to take solid foods, to gain partial control over elimination, learn
the foundation of receptive and expressive speech and to emotionally relate to parents and others. This is
the period marking the beginning of socialization and creativity.
Babyhood is from two weeks to two years old. During this stage, babies learn to walk, eat solid food, start
talking, and control some body functions. They also begin to socialize and show creativity.

4. EARLY CHILDHOOD
o can be taken to range from the completion of two (2) years to 6 years. In this section, the skills acquired
by the child, speech development and play development, personality development is outlined. This is
considered as the preschool age.
Early childhood is from 2 to 6 years old. During this time, children develop speaking skills, learn through
play, and shape their personality. This stage is also known as the preschool age

5. LATE CHILDHOOD
 The period of late childhood ranges from 6 years to the attainment of sexual maturity, around 10 or 12.
This is considered as the troublesome stage as children seek for conformity and become part of groups.
During this stage children develop marked negativism and because of their desire for independence
seldom obey the parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of knowledge
essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance and children of this age
'crowd together or 'gang up', thus earning the name gang age'
o
Late childhood is from 6 to 10 or 12 years old, ending at puberty. Kids start school, make friends, and
want more independence. They may resist rules as they try to fit in with others.

6. PUBERTY OR PREADOLESCENCE
 this period lasts from 12 to 13 or 14 years. It is a short overlapping periods.
(Puberty or preadolescence is the stage of development that lasts from about 12 to 13 or 14 years old. It
is a brief period where children begin to experience physical and emotional changes as they transition
into adolescence.)

STAGES:
 PREPUBESCENT - stage includes the first evidence of sexual maturation-primary sexual characteristics-and
terminates at the first appearance of pubic hair. During this stage, reproduction is virtually impossible.
(Prepubescent is the stage before puberty when early signs of sexual maturation appear, but reproduction is not
yet possible, and pubic hair has not developed.)

 PUBESCENT STAGE - the growth spurt begins to accelerate, males experience their first emission of semen
usually in the form of "wet dreams," and menarche occurs in the females.
(Menarche refers to a female's first menstrual period, marking the beginning of reproductive capability. It
typically occurs during puberty, around ages 9 to 15.)

 POSTPUBESCENT STAGE- is characterized by the deceleration of growth spurt, completion of both primary
and sexual characteristics, and fertility is possible.
(The postpubescent stage is the phase after puberty when growth slows down, and both primary and secondary
sexual characteristics are fully developed. At this stage, individuals have reached sexual maturity, meaning they
are capable of reproduction.)

7. ADOLESCENCE-
 literally means 'to grow to maturity'. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and adulthood ch&-
acteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them. The age range is
from 13 or 14 to-18 years. It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes taking place
including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence.
(Growing to maturity means developing physically, emotionally, and mentally into an adult. It includes
changes like getting taller, becoming stronger, thinking more independently, and gaining the ability to
take on adult responsibilities.)
8. EARLY ADULTHOOD
 this period lasts from 18 to 40 years old. This is known as the productive age, a period for dependency
and a period of emotional tension or even social isolation. This is the stage of commitment, change in
values, and changes in lifestyle choices
(Early adulthood lasts from 18 to 40 years old. It is a time of work and productivity, but also challenges
like stress and social adjustments. People make big life decisions, change their values, and take on
responsibilities.)

9. MIDDLE AGE
 this period occurs from 40 to 60. Many people dread this stage as it is the stage of stress and transition.
Others may feel bored with their lives at around this age may feel awkward or inadequate when
comparing themselves with others evaluating their lives against them.

(This stage is often a time of stress and change. Some people worry about getting older, while others feel
bored with their lives. Many compare themselves to others and question their achievements, which can
make them feel unsure or unhappy.)

10. OLD AGE OR SENESCENCE

 this period lasts from 60 years old to death. This is considered as the period of decline during which
people are judged by different criteria based on prevalent stereotypes of old people. People in this stage
may feel that they are part of the minority.
(Old age or senescence starts at 60 and continues until death. During this time, the body and mind slowly
weaken, and society may judge older people based on stereotypes. Some may feel lonely or left out.)
CAUSES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

1. The Primary Cause used to designate the condition without which the disorder would not have occurred. The
main reason of the existence of the disorder.
(The primary cause is the main factor responsible for a disorder or condition. It is the root cause that directly
leads to the problem, meaning that without it, the disorder would not occur.

An example of a primary cause of deviant behavior is poverty leading to theft. If a person grows up in extreme
poverty with no access to basic needs, they may steal to survive. In this case, poverty is the main reason for the
behavior.

2. The Predisposing Cause a condition that comes before and paves the way for a possible later occurrence of
disorder under certain conditions.
A predisposing cause is a factor that happens before and increases the chance of a problem or illness occurring
later, especially under certain conditions.
Predisposing means making something more likely to happen in the future.

e.g. A predisposing cause of deviant behavior is growing up in a violent home. A child who sees violence often may be
more likely to act aggressively or break rules later, especially without good role models or support.

3. The Precipitating Cause-a condition that proves too much for the individual and triggers the disorder.

A precipitating cause is an event or condition that directly triggers a disorder when a person can no longer cope. It is the
final factor that pushes someone into developing the disorder.

An example of a precipitating cause is losing a loved one leading to depression. The person may have been emotionally
vulnerable before, but the loss becomes the final trigger that causes them to develop depression.

4. The Reinforcing Cause a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring stress.
(A reinforcing cause is something that keeps a problem going instead of helping it stop. For example, if someone feels
anxious and avoids people, the loneliness makes their anxiety worse.)

Stress-refers to the negative emotional experiences associated behavioral, biochemical, and psychological changes that
are related to perceived acute or chronic challenges.
Stressors-are events that stimulate these changes.

(An example of a reinforcing cause is a person with depression who isolates themselves from friends and family. Avoiding
social interactions may provide temporary relief but ultimately worsens their loneliness and depression.)

FORMS OF STRESS
1. ACUTE STRESS- results from body's reaction to a new or challenging situation. It's that feeling you get from an
approaching deadline or when you narrowly avoid being hit by a car. It is short-term. Usually, emotions and the
body return to their normal state relatively soon.
(Acute stress is a short-term reaction to a sudden challenge or danger, like feeling nervous before a test or scared
after avoiding an accident. It fades quickly once the situation is over.)

2. EPISODIC ACUTE STRESS is when acute stresses happen on a frequent basis. This can be because of
repeatedly tight work deadlines. It can also be because of the frequent high-stress situations
(Episodic acute stress happens when short-term stress occurs frequently, like constantly facing tight work
deadlines or dealing with repeated high-pressure situations.).

3. CHRONIC STRESS -is the result of stressors that continue for a long period of time. Examples include living in
a high-crime neighborhood or constantly fighting with your life partner. This type of stress feels never-ending.
(An example of chronic stress is a person stuck in a toxic work environment, facing daily pressure and conflicts
with their boss, leading to constant anxiety and exhaustion.)

ADJUSTMENT DISORDER is a group of symptoms, such as stress, feeling sad or hopeless, and physical symptoms that
can occur after you go through a stressful life event. The symptoms occur because you are having a hard time coping.
Your reaction is stronger than expected for the type of event that occurred.
(Adjustment disorder happens when a person has a strong reaction to a stressful event. They may feel very sad, hopeless,
or stressed and even have physical symptoms. This happens because they find it hard to cope with the situation, and their
reaction is more intense than expected.)

(An example of adjustment disorder is a person going through a divorce who feels overwhelmed with sadness, loses
interest in daily activities, and struggles to function at work or home more than expected.)
DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA
 is one of a group of conditions called dissociative disorders.
 are mental illnesses that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory, consciousness, awareness,
identity, and/or perception. When one or more of these functions is disrupted, symptoms can result.
These symptoms can interfere with a person's general functioning, including social and work activities,
and relationships.
 occurs when a person blocks out certain information, usually associated with a stressful or traumatic
event, leaving him or her unable to remember important personal Information. With this disorder, the
degree of memory loss goes beyond normal forgetfulness and includes gaps in memory for long periods
of time or of memories involving the traumatic event.
(Dissociative amnesia is a mental disorder where a person loses memory due to stress or trauma. It goes
beyond normal forgetfulness and can cause gaps in memory, especially about personal information or
traumatic events. This can affect daily life, work, and relationships.)

DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE
 the loss of sense of personal identity and impulsively wander or travel away from their homes or places of
work.
 person suffering often is confused about who they are and might even create new identities.
 Outwardly, people with this disorder show no signs of illness, such as a strange appearance or odd
behavior.
(Dissociative fugue is a condition where a person loses their sense of identity and may unexpectedly
travel away from home or work. They often become confused about who they are and might even create a
new identity. Despite this, they usually appear and act normally, showing no obvious signs of illness.)

(An example of dissociative fugue is a man who, after experiencing a traumatic event, suddenly leaves
his home and travels to another city without remembering who he is. He starts a new life with a different
name, unaware of his past identity, until someone recognizes him or his memory returns.)
- Fugue means a state of confusion where a person forgets their identity and may travel or start a new life without
remembering their past.)

DEPERSONALIZATION
 is marked by periods of feeling disconnected or detached from one's body and thoughts (depersonalization).
 The disorder is sometimes described as feeling like you are observing yourself from outside your body or like
being in a dream.
 However, people with this disorder do not lose contact with reality; they realize that things are not as they appear.
 also might be a symptom of other disorders, including some forms of substance abuse, certain personality
disorders, seizure disorders, and certain other brain diseases.
(Depersonalization is a feeling of being disconnected from your body or thoughts, like watching yourself from the
outside or being in a dream. People with this condition still know what’s real but feel detached. It can also be a
symptom of other conditions like substance abuse or brain disorders.)

GENERAL ANXIETY DISORDER

 a common chronic disorder characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any one object or
situation.
 Those suffering from generalized anxiety experience non-specific persistent fear and worry and become overly
concerned with everyday matters.
(Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is a long-term condition where a person feels constant worry and fear
about everyday things, even when there is no clear reason. The anxiety is not focused on one specific situation but
affects daily life.)

PANIC DISORDER
 a person suffers from brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension, often marked by trembling, shaking,
confusion, dizziness, nausea, difficulty breathing.
 These panic attacks, can last for several hours and can be triggered by stress, fear, or even exercise; the specific
cause is not always apparent.
(Panic disorder causes sudden, intense fear or terror, leading to physical symptoms like shaking, dizziness,
nausea, and trouble breathing. These panic attacks can last for hours and may be triggered by stress, fear, or
happen for no clear reason.)
POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
 is an anxiety disorder which results from a traumatic experience.
 can result from an extreme situation, such as combat, natural disaster, rape, hostage situations, child abuse,
bullying or even a serious accident. It can also result from long term (chronic) exposure to a severe stressor, for
example soldiers who endure individual battles but cannot cope with continuous combat.
(Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder caused by a traumatic experience, like war,
abuse, disasters, or accidents. It can happen after a single extreme event or long-term stress, making it hard for a
person to cope.)
 SEPARATION ANXIETY DISORDER
Is the feeling of excessive and Inappropriate levels of anxiety over being separated from a person or place.
is a normal part of development in babies or children, and it is only when this feeling is excessive or inappropriate
that it can be considered a disorder.

Separation Anxiety Disorder means feeling too much fear or stress when away from a person or place you are attached
to. It is normal for babies and children, but if it is too strong or lasts too long, it can be a problem.

SOMATOFORM DISORDERS - Complains of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problem
but no organic basis can be found.

Somatoform Disorders mean feeling real physical symptoms like pain or sickness, but doctors can't find a
medical reason for them. The symptoms come from the mind, not the body.

GROUPS OF SOMATOFORMS

A. HYPOCHONDRIASIS - excessive concern about state of health or physical condition (multiplicity about
the Illness).

Hypochondriasis means worrying too much about being sick, even when there is no real illness. A person may
always think they have a serious disease, even if doctors say they are healthy.

B. PSYCHOGENIC PAIN DISORDER - characterized by the report of severe and lasting pain. Either no
physical basis is apparent or the reaction is greatly in excess of what abnormality.

Psychogenic Pain Disorder means feeling strong and long-lasting pain, but doctors can't find a clear physical
reason for it. The pain may come from stress, emotions, or mental health issues rather than an injury or illness.

C. CONVERSION DISORDERS - a neurotic pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or loss
of control without any underlying organic abnormality.
Conversion Disorder means when a person suddenly has physical problems, like not being able to move, see, or speak, but
doctors can't find a medical reason. It happens because of stress or emotional issues, not a physical illness.

BRIQUETS SYNDROME - Factitious disorder by proxy - Symptoms are voluntary induced by the patients,
presumably in an effort to receive attention and care
Briquet’s Syndrome (now called Somatic Symptom Disorder) means a person has many physical complaints,
like pain or sickness, but doctors can't find a clear medical cause.

A. MUNCHAUSEN SYNDROME - Is an extreme form of disorder in which the person deliberately simulates
the symptoms of disease by faking symptoms and even manipulating the results of a test.
Munchausen Syndrome means a person fakes being sick or makes themselves sick on purpose to get
attention and medical care. They may lie about symptoms or even change test results.

B. MALINGERING - the person reports the symptoms in order to achieve some specific goal, ie insurance
Malingering means pretending to be sick to get something, like money, avoiding work, or getting out of trouble.

BODY DYSMORPHIC DISORDER is a mental disorder in which you can't stop thinking about one or more
perceived defects or flaws in your appearance a flaw that, to others, is either minor or not observable. But you
may feel so ashamed and anxious that you may avoid many social situations.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder means worrying too much about how you look, even if others don’t see a problem. A
person may feel ashamed or avoid people because of it.

SEXUAL DISORDERS

1. SEXUAL DEVIATION - a type of mental disorder characterized by a preference for or obsession with unusual
sexual practices.

2. EXHIBITIONISM - a mental condition characterized by the compulsion to display one's genitals in public.

3. FETISHISM - is sexual attraction to objects, situations, or body parts not traditionally viewed as sexual.
Fetishism means feeling sexually attracted to things like objects, situations, or body parts that are not
usually seen as sexual, like feet, shoes, or certain fabrics.
4. PARAPHILIA a condition characterized by abnormal sexual desires, typically involving extreme or dangerous
activities
 5. PEDOPHILIA - sexual feelings directed toward children.

6. SADOMASOCHISM is the giving or receiving of pleasure, sometimes sexual, from acts involving the infliction
or reception of pain or humiliation.

Sadomasochism means enjoying pain or humiliation in a way that brings pleasure, sometimes in a sexual way.
 Sadism – Getting pleasure from hurting or controlling someone.
 Masochism – Enjoying being hurt or controlled

7. SADISM - the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification, from inflicting pain, suffering, or
humiliation on others

8. TRANSVESTISM (also called transvestitism) is the practice of dressing and acting in a style or manner
traditionally associated with another gender.
Transvestism means wearing clothes and sometimes acting in a way that is usually linked to the opposite gender.
For example, a man might wear dresses and makeup, or a woman might wear traditionally male clothing. People
do this for different reasons, like personal expression, fun, or comfort. It is not the same as being transgender.
9. MASOCHISM - the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification, from one's own pain or
humiliation.
Another example of masochism is a person who likes being tied up or called names during intimacy because it
makes them feel excited.
10. VOYEURISM - Watching others while naked or having sex, generally without their knowledge; also known as
scopophilia or scoptophilia.
Voyeurism means secretly watching people who are naked or having sex, usually without them knowing. Some
people do this to feel excitement, but it is illegal if done without permission.
11. ZOOPHILIA is a paraphilia involving cross-species sexual activity between human and non-human animals or a
fixation on such practice.
Zoophilia means having a sexual attraction to animals or being interested in sexual activities with them. This is
not normal or acceptable, and in most places, it is illegal.
12. INCEST - sexual intercourse with relatives

13. SATYRIASIS - an excessive (sexual urge) desire of men to have sexual intercourse

14. NYMPHOMANIA - a strong sexual feeling of women with an excessive sexual urge

15. Oralism - the use of mouth or the tongue as a way of sexual satisfaction

16. Fellatio - male sex organ to the mouth of the women coupled with the act of sucking that initiates orgasm
Cunnilingus-sexual gratification is attained by licking the external female genitalia

Fellatio is when a person puts a man's sex organ in their mouth and sucks it for pleasure.

Cunnilingus is when a person licks or kisses a woman's private area to give her pleasure.

17. Anilism (anillingus) - licking the anus of the sexual partner.

18. Sodomy - is a sexual act through the anus of the sexual partner.
Sodomy means having sex through the anus instead of the vagina.
19. Uranism - sexual gratification is attained through fingering, holding the breast of licking parts of the body.

20. Frottage - the act of rubbing the sex organ against body parts of another person.
Frottage means rubbing your private parts against someone else's body to feel pleasure.
21. Partialism-it refers to the sexual libido on any part of the body of a sexual partner.
 Partialism means feeling strong sexual attraction to a specific body part of a partner, like feet, hands, or legs,
rather than the whole body.
22. Scoptophilia - the intentional act of watching people undress or during sexual intimacies.

23. Troilism - three person participate in sex orgy such as two women versus on man or vice versa

24. Pluralism - group of persons in sexual orgies such as couple to couple sexual relations. It is also called "sexual
festival"
Pluralism means a group of people having sexual activities together, like couples swapping partners or group
sex. It is sometimes called a "sexual festival."
25. Coprolalia-the use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction.
Coprolalia means using dirty or offensive words to feel sexually excited.
26. Mysophilia-response to filth or excretion
Mysophilia means feeling excited by dirt, bad smells, or bodily fluids like sweat or urine.
27. Urolgania- sight of urine
Urolagnia means feeling excited by seeing or thinking about urine.
28. Don Juanism - the act of seducing women as a career without permanency of sexual partner or companion.
Don Juanism means a man who likes seducing many women but doesn’t stay in a serious relationship with any of
them.
29. Anthropophagy - eating the victims flesh or slicing off parts of the flesh from the body, le. Breast, thighs
Anthropophagy means eating human flesh, like cutting off body parts such as the breast or thighs and consuming
them. It is also called cannibalism.
30. Autoeroticism- sexual arousal thru self-stimulation and self asphyxiation (scarfing)
Autoeroticism means getting sexual pleasure by touching yourself. Some people also try dangerous methods like
choking themselves (scarfing) to feel more pleasure, but this can be very risky.
31. Coprolagnia/Coprohilla- sight of women defecating: touching or eating excrement
Coprolagnia (Coprophilia) means feeling excited by seeing someone poop, touching poop, or even eating it.
32. Klismaphilia- sexual arousal through the administration of enemas; some substitute sex for enemas
Klismaphilia means feeling sexually excited by using enemas, which involve putting liquid into the rectum to
clean it out. Some people enjoy this instead of or along with sex.
33. Infibulation- self- torture; involves piercing one's own nipples, labia, clitoris, scrotum or penis with sharp needles
or pins.
Infibulation means hurting yourself by piercing body parts like the nipples, private areas, or penis with needles
or pins. Some people do this for personal or cultural reasons, but it can be painful and risky.
34. Lust murder- murdering sadistically and brutally, including body parts and genitalia
Lust murder means killing someone in a very violent way, often hurting their body parts or private areas because
of sexual desire.
35. Scatophilia-sexual gratification by making obscene phone call
Scatophilia means feeling excited by making dirty or inappropriate phone calls to others.

SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS AFFECTING MALES

1. Erectile Insufficiency (Impotency)- Difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection.
2. Pre-mature Ejaculation - Ejaculation that occurs too quickly.
3. Retarded Ejaculation - Difficulty or inability to ejaculate.

SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS AFFECTING FEMALES

1. Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) - a failure to attain sexual excitement by the female partner.
2. Orgasmic Dysfunction - a sexual disorder characterized by the difficulty in achieving orgasm
3. Vaginismus-involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance to the vagina that prevent penetration of the male
sex organ.

Vaginismus means when the muscles around the vagina tighten on their own, making it hard or painful to have sex or
insert anything. It happens without control and can be caused by fear, anxiety, or medical reasons.

4. Dyspareunia-called painful coitus/painful sexual acts in women.

 Dyspareunia means feeling pain during sex. It can happen to women for different reasons, like infections,
dryness, or medical conditions.

PSYCHOPATHY
- Typically stemming from immature and distorted personality development, resulting in persistent maladaptive
ways of perceiving and thinking.
(Psychopathy is a condition where a person’s personality develops in an unhealthy way, making them see and
think about the world differently. This can lead to harmful behavior and a lack of understanding or care for
others.)

- These are persons who do not have any neurotic or psychotic symptoms but are not able to conform to
prevailing customs and standards of conduct of his social group.
These are people who don’t have mental illnesses but struggle to follow the rules and behaviors that most people
in their community expect.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
- absence of a conscience
- emotional immaturity
- absence of a life plan
- lack of capacity for love and emotional involvement

Common traits of psychopathy:

 No sense of right or wrong – They don’t feel guilty about hurting others.
 Emotionally immature – They act like a child when handling emotions.
 No clear goals in life – They don’t plan for the future or work towards dreams.
 Cannot truly love or care deeply – They struggle to form real emotional connections.

BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER

- Experience intense emotional instability, particularly in relationships with others;
- They may make frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others. They may
experience minor problems as major crises;
- They may also express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures, self-mutilation,
and other self-destructive acts. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.
are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug dependence, bulimia, dissociative
disorders. and post-traumatic stress disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a condition where a person struggles with strong and unpredictable emotions,
especially in relationships.
 They fear being left alone and may overreact to small problems.
 They often feel empty or unsure of who they are.
 When upset, they may harm themselves or act in risky ways.
 They have a higher chance of developing depression, addiction, eating disorders, or trauma-related issues.

NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY
- have a grandiose sense of self-importance.
- They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success or power.
- They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others.

Narcissistic Personality is when a person thinks they are more important than others.
 They believe they are better or more special than everyone else.
 They always want others to admire and praise them.
 They dream about having great success, power, or fame.

By the way, what is Personality? is the way a person thinks, feels, and behaves that makes them unique. It includes how
they react to situations, interact with others, and express emotions.

PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER

- Feeling of constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
- They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to support their suspicions.

Paranoid Personality Disorder is when someone always feels like they can't trust others.
 They think people are trying to harm or deceive them, even without proof.
 They are always looking for signs that others are against them.
 They find it hard to trust or feel safe around people.
What are MENTAL DISTURBANCES?
Mental disturbances refer to problems in a person’s thoughts, emotions, or behavior that affect their daily life.

MENTAL DEFICIENCY - this is a condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind existing before the age
of eighteen arising from inherited causes or induced by disease or injury.

Mental Deficiency means the brain did not fully develop or stopped developing properly before the age of 18.
 It can be caused by genetics, illness, or injury.
 It affects a person's ability to learn, think, or do everyday tasks.

Classes:
 IDIOTS - persons with mental defect to a degree that they are unable to guard themselves against common
physical dangers, their mentality is compared to a 2 years old child. IQ is 0-25.

(Idiots (an outdated medical term) are people with a very severe mental disability.
 They cannot protect themselves from everyday dangers.
 Their thinking and understanding are like that of a 2-year-old child.
 Their IQ is between 0-25, meaning they have very limited learning ability.

 IMBECILES - persons whose state of mind is similar to a child 3 to 7 years old. It does not amount to idiocy but
is incapable of managing themselves or their affairs. IQ is 26-50.

Imbeciles (another outdated term) are people with a moderate mental disability.
 Their thinking is similar to a child aged 3 to 7 years old.
 They are not as severely affected as those labeled "idiots," but they still can’t take care of themselves or manage
everyday tasks.
 Their IQ is between 26-50, meaning they have limited learning and problem-solving abilities.

 FEEBLE MINDED - persons whose state of mind manifest cases where there exist mental defectiveness that do
not amount to imbecility. Person in this state requires care, supervision, and control for their own or from others.
IQ is 51-70.

Feeble-Minded (an old term) refers to people with mild mental disabilities.
 They have some mental challenges, but not as severe as imbeciles.
 They still need help and supervision from others to take care of themselves.
 Their IQ is between 51-70, meaning they may struggle with complex tasks but can still do basic everyday
activities.

 MORALLY DEFECTIVE - persons with strong vicious or criminal propensities. In the case of children, they
appear to be permanently incapable of receiving benefits from proper instruction in ordinary schools.

Morally Defective refers to people who have strong tendencies to act in harmful or criminal ways.
 For children, this means they may seem unable to learn or improve through normal schooling.
 They often struggle with understanding right from wrong and may act out in ways that are harmful to others.

8. PSYCHOSIS - a severe mental disorder in which thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with
external reality. It is an abnormal condition of the mind described as involving a "loss of contact with reality".
People with psychosis normally have the following:
Psychosis is a serious mental condition where a person has trouble knowing what is real and what is not. Their thoughts
and emotions become confused, making it hard for them to connect with reality.

A. HALLUCINATIONS - A sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. Hallucinations are different
from illusions, or perceptual distortions, which are the misperception of external stimuli. Hallucinations may
occur in any of the senses and take on almost any form, which may include simple sensations (such as lights,
colors, tastes, and smells) to experiences such as seeing and interacting with fully formed animals and people,
hearing voices, and having complex tactile sensations.
Hallucinations are when a person sees, hears, feels, smells, or tastes things that are not actually there. These
experiences seem very real to them, even though no real object, sound, or sensation is causing them.
 B. DELUSIONS - are false beliefs that a person holds on to, without adequate evidence. It can be difficult to
change the belief, even with evidence to the contrary. Common themes of delusions are persecutory (person
believes that others are out to harm them), grandiose (person believing that they have special powers or skills),
etc.
Delusions are strong beliefs that a person holds, even when they are not true and there is no real proof. No matter how
much others try to correct them, the person still believes it completely.

Karl Jaspers has classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types.
1. PRIMARY DELUSIONS - are defined as arising suddenly and not being comprehensible in terms of
normal mental processes.
Primary delusions are false beliefs that appear suddenly and do not make sense based on normal
thinking. The person believes them without any clear reason or explanation.

2. SECONDARY DELUSIONS - are typically understood as being influenced by the person's background
or current situation (e.g., ethnicity; also religious, superstitious, or political beliefs).
Secondary delusions are false beliefs that develop based on a person’s experiences, culture, or current
situation. Unlike primary delusions, they don’t appear suddenly—they are influenced by what the person
already knows or believes.
For example:
 A deeply religious person might believe they are chosen by God for a special mission.
 Someone who is very superstitious might think they are cursed.

C. SCHIZOPHRENIA - is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to

understand reality. This is manifested by delusion and illusion. Common symptoms include false beliefs,
unclear or confused thinking, hearing voices, reduced social engagement and emotional expression, and a lack
of motivation.

Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. People with
schizophrenia have trouble understanding what is real and what is not.

D. PARANOLA - is a thought process believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of
delusion and irrationality. Paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory, or beliefs of conspiracy concerning a
perceived threat towards oneself (e.g. "Everyone is out to get me"). Paranoia is distinct from phobias, which also
involve irrational fear, but usually no blame. Making false accusations and the general distrust of others also
frequently accompany paranoia. For example, an incident most people would view as an accident or coincidence,
a paranoid person might believe was intentional.

9. NEUROSIS- a relatively mild mental illness that is not caused by organic disease, involving symptoms of
stress (depression, anxiety, obsessive behavior, hypochondria) but not a radical loss of touch with reality. They
may impair a person's functioning in virtually any area of his life, relationships, or external affairs, but they are
not severe enough to incapacitate the person.

Common Neuroses

1. Neurasthenia - manifests fatigue and nervousness and sometimes pain. It is an ill-defined medical condition
characterized by lassitude, fatigue, headache, and irritability associated chiefly with emotional disturbance.

2. Anxiety - a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an eminent event or something with an uncertain
outcome.

3. Obsessive - Compulsive Neurosis-uncontrollable or irresistible to do something. This may be in impulse the form of the
following:

4. Kleptomania- the compulsive desire to steal.

5. Dipsomania- compulsive top drink alcohol.

6. Pyromania- compulsive to set fire.

7. Homicidal Compulsion – the irresistible to kill somebody.

8. Hysteria – this refers to an unhealthy or senseless emotional outbursts coupled with violent emotional outbreaks.

9. Phobia – exaggerated fear of things that normal people fear only in some degree, and fear on things that ordinary people
do not.
10. Depression – a state of unpleasantness, despair, rejection and hurt.
Victimology as an academic term contains two elements:

One is the Latin word "Victima" which translates into "victim".

The other is the Greek word "logos" which means a system of knowledge, the direction of something abstract, the
direction of teaching, science, and a discipline.

CRITICAL DATES IN VICTIMOLOGY

1. 1924 - EDWIN SUTHERLAND includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook.

2. 1937 - BENIAMIN MENDELSOHN publishes his writings on the rapist and his victim.
3. 1941 - HANS VON HENTIG publishes article on victim and criminal interactions.
4. 1947 - BENIAMIN MENDELSOHN coins the term "victimology" in a French journal.
5. 1948 - HANS VON HENTIG publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim.
6. 1949 - FREDERIC WERTHAM first used the word "victimology" in a book Show of Violence.
7. 1957 - MARGERY FRY proposes victim compensation in the London Times.
8. 1958 MARVIN WOLFGANG studies homicide victims, uses the term "victim precipitation".
9. 1963 NEW ZEALAND enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act.
10. 1965 CALIFORNIA is the first state in the USA to start Victim Compensation.
11. 1966 JAPAN enacts Criminal Indemnity Law.
12. 1966 USA starts to survey crime victims not reported to the police
13. 1967 Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland.
14. 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal.
15. 1972 The first three victim assistance programs are created in St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco,
California and in Washington, D. C
16. 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in jerusalem, Israel.
17. 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project is started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA.
18. 1975 The first "Victim Rights' Weeit" is organized by the Philadelphia District Attorney Pennsylvania, USA
19. 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organization of Victim Assistance (NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA.
20. 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology.
21. 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno, California, USA.
22. 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany.
23. 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner after one of her twin daughters was
killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender.
24. 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims' Rights Week in April
25. 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel established by MADID to educate drunk drivers about how their
victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA
26. 1984 The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims Fund from federal crime fines to
pay for state victim compensation and services.
27. 1985 The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of
Crime and Abuse of Power.
28. 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland.
29. 1988 The first "Indian Nations: Justice for Victims of Crime" conference is held by the Office for Victims of
Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota, USA.
30. 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national organizations in Europe working
for victims of crime in consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN.
31. 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the Guide for Policymakers on the
Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
of Power
32. 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1 July at which time the
International Criminal Court became effective and it included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit
33. 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a
dramatic new strategic plan to commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration
34. 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national
legislation.

EARLY VICTIMOLOGISTS

1. HANS VON HENTIG

- German criminologist who developed a typology of victims based on the degree to which victims contributed to
causing the criminal act. Examining the psychological, social, and biological dynamics of the situation, he
classified victims into 13 categories depending on their propensity or risk for victimization. His typology included
the young, female, old, immigrants, depressed, wanton, tormentor, blocked, exempted, or fighting.
- His notion that victims contributed to their victimization through their actions and behaviors led to the of the
concept of assign equal culpability to the victim.
-
2. BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN
- often been referred to as the "father" of victimology.
 Intrigued by the dynamics that take place between victims and offenders, he surveyed both parties during the
course of preparing a case for trial
- Using these data, he developed a six-category typology of victims based on legal considerations of the degree of a
victim's culpability.
- coined the term "Victimology", and proposed that this should be an entirely new field of study instead of merely a
branch in criminology.

3. MARVIN E. WOLFGANG
- He was the first to present empirical evidence to support the notion that victims are to some degree responsible for
their own victimization

Wolfgang identified three factors common to victim-precipitated homicides:

(1) The victim and offender had some prior interpersonal relationship,
(2) there was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties, and
(3) the victim had consumed alcohol

4. STEPHEN SCHAFER
- classifies victims on the basis of their "functional responsibility
- Victims' dual role was to function so that they did not provoke such acts. others to harm them while also
preventing

5. MENACHEM AMIR
- one of the first studies of rape. On the basis of the details in the Philadelphia police rape records, he reported that
all forcible rapes were victim precipitated by such factors as the use of alcohol by both parties; seductive actions
by the victim; and the victim's wearing of revealing clothing, which could tantalize the offender to the point of
misreading the victim's behavior.

THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION
1. LIFESTYLE EXPOSURE THEORY
- states that an individual's demographics (eg, age, sex) tended to influence one's lifestyle, which in turn increased
his or her exposure to risk of personal and property victimization. For instance, if females spend more time at
home, they would he exposed to fewer risky situations involving strangers and hence experience fewer stranger
committed victimizations.

2. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY

- posits that the convergence in time and space of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a
capable guardian provide an opportunity for crimes to occur. The absence of any one of these conditions is
sufficient to drastically reduce the risk of criminal opportunity, if not prevent it altogether.
- It does not attempt to explain participation in crime but instead focuses on how opportunities for crimes are
related to the nature of patterns of routine social interaction, including one's work, family, and leisure activities

3. VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY

- suggests that the characteristics of the victim precipitate the crime. That is, a criminal could single out a victim
because the victim is of a certain ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, gender or gender Identity.
- Generally involve an explanation of how an individual's behavior may contribute to his or her own victimization

REPEAT VS RECURRING VICTIMS

RECURRING VICTIMS - People who experience two or more victimizations.

REPOST VICTIM - is one who experiences the same type of victimization two or more times in a given time frame

Effects and Consequences of Victimization

A. PHYSICAL CONSEQUENCES - are often visible and range in seriousness from bruises and scrapes, bones, to
fatal injuries. Other, less foreseeable injuries, such as the threat of sexually transmitted diseases, can also be the
result of a victimization incident. to broken

B. PSYCHOLOGICAL/EMOTIONAL AND MENTAL - Consequences may be less externally obvious but are
just as serious as physical injury. Stress, depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders are but a few that crime
victims experience.

C. FINANCIAL CONSEQUENCES - Medical expenses, property losses, lost wages and legal costs are financial
consequences that victims and their families wist hear.
 Innocent Victim Someone who did not contribute to the victimization and
is in the wrong place at the wrong time. This is the victim
we most often envision when thinking about enhancing
victim rights
The victim with minor guilt Does not actively participate in their victimization but
contributes to some minor degree, such as frequenting
high-crime areas This would be a person that continues to
go to a bar that is known for nightly assault
The guilty victim, guilty offender The victim and offender may have engaged in criminal
activity together This would be two people attempting to
steal a car, rob a store, sell drugs, etc.
The guilty offender, guilty victim The victim may have been the primary attacker, but the
offender won the fight.
Guilty Victim The victim instigated a conflict but is killed in self-
defense. An example would be an abused woman killing
her partner while he is abusing her.
Imaginary Victim Some people pretend to be victims and are not. This
would be someone falsifying reports.

MENDELSOHN'S TYPOLOGY OF CRIME VICTIMS

VON HENTIG’S TYPOLOGY

Young people Immature, under adult supervision, lack physical strength

and lack the mental and emotional maturity to recognize
victimization
Females/elderly Lack of physical strength
Mentally ill/intellectually disabled Can be taken advantage of easily
Immigrants Cannot understand language or the threat of deportation
makes them vulnerable.
Minorities Marginalized in society, so vulnerable to victimization.
Dull Normals Reasonably intelligent people who are naive or vulnerable
in some way. These people are easily deceived.
The depressed Gullible, easily swayed, and not vigilant

The acquisitive Greedy can be targeted by scammers who would take

advantage of their desire for financial gain

The lonesome and broken-hearted Often prone to victimization by intimate partners. They
desire to be with someone at any cost. They are
susceptible to manipulation.

Tormentors Primary abusers in relationships become victims when the

one being abused turns on them.

Blocked, exempted, and fighting victims Enter situations in which they are taken advantage such as
blackmail.

STEPHEN SCHAFER TYPOLOGY OF VICTIMS

1. Unrelated Victims (no victim responsibility)-Incidents in which victim is an unfortunate target of the
offender.
2. Provocative Victims (victim shares responsibility)- Incidents in which offender reacted to some action or
behavior of the victim
3. Precipitative Victims (some degree of victim responsibility)- Incidents in which victims make themselves
vulnerable for victimization by placing them in dangerous settings
4. Biologically Weak Victims (no victim responsibility) Incidents in which victims get victimized because of
their physical condition ie. Aged, young, infirm and others
5. Socially Weak Victims (no victim responsibility)- Immigrants or minorities are susceptible towards
victimization as they are not adequately integrated into the society. A village girl coming from a
submissive culture settled in a metro city for continuing her education can be easily sexually abused by
the boys who are clever enough to take advantage of her simplicity
 6. Self-Victimizing Victims (total responsibility) Incidents in which the victims are involved in crimes such
as drug abuse, prostitution, gambling etc. where the victim act in concert with the criminal act
7. Political Victims (no victim responsibility)- Individuals who oppose those in power and are victimized in
return to be kept under control.

YOUNG RIFAI VICTIM TYPOLOGIES

 BIOPHYSICAL VICTIM: Victims who suffers injustices because of certain physical anomaly or racial
characteristic or mental handicaps
 Victims who suffer Injustices because of natural disasters like floods, tornadoes, earthquakes and other acts of
God etc.
 Victims who suffer injustices caused by interfacing environment like air pollution, water pollution, lead poisoning
etc
 Victims suffering caused by social environment. Example political victim, economic victim, cultural
victim and crime victim
 Victims of technology Example-car accidents and industrial accidents

INTERVENTIONS AND ASSISTANCE TO VICTIMS

8. Victim compensation program aims to provide financial compensation for victims of violent or personal
crime and unjust imprisonment or detention.

9. Victim restitution-compensation for the loss.

10. The Commission on Human Rights- exists under a constitutional mandate to act as an independent office
to protect and promote human rights. This commission provides financial assistance to victims of human
rights violations or their families, so as to help alleviate suffering and sustain their basic needs within a
specified period.