FACULTY OF LAW
HIMALAYAN UNIVERSITY
ITANAGAR
Syllabus
for
Master of Law (LL.M.)
FIRST SEMESTER
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE TOTAL MARKS
LAW-29 Law and Social Transformation in India 100
LAW-30 Basic of Constitutional Law of India 100
LAW-31 Administration of Criminal Justice System 100
LAW-32 Indian constitutional law and new challenges 100
SECOND SEMESTER
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE TOTAL MARKS
LAW-33 Judicial Process 100
LAW-34 Administrative law-I 100
LAW-35 Centre/Union-State financial and legislative relation 100
LAW-36 Law of constitution-I 100
THIRD SEMESTER
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE TOTAL MARKS
LAW-37 Research Methodology 100
LAW-38 Administrative law-II 100
LAW-39 Law of constitution-II 100
LAW-40 Human Rights 100
FOURTH SEMESTER
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE TOTAL MARKS
LAW-41 Comparative & Co-operative federalism 100
LAW-42 Civil and political rights-comparative study of select 100
constitution
LAW-43 Human rights and constitutional law 100
LAW-44 Dissertation 100
FIRST SEMESTER
INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW & NEW CHALLENGES
Unit 1 - Indian Federalism
1.1 Conceptual and Historical Background of Federalism
1.2 Nature of the Indian Constitution
1.2.1 Unitary or Federal in Character
1.2.2 Arguments for Quasi-Federal
1.3 Co-operative Federalism
1.3.1 Legislative Relations
1.3.2 Administrative Relations
1.3.3 Financial Relations
1.3.4 Major Recommendations of Bodies constituted to study Centre-State
Relations
[Link] Sarkaria Commission
[Link] Venkatachaliah National Commission to Review Working of
the Constitution
[Link] Punchhi Commission
[Link] Rajmanar Committee
[Link] West Bengal Memorandum
[Link] Akali Dal Resolution
1.4 Challenges before Indian Federalism
Unit 2 - Distribution of Legislative Powers
2.1 The Scheme of the Distribution of Legislative Powers in India
2.2 Judicial Approach and the Present Position
2.3 Recommendation of Sarkaria Commission & Venkatachaliah Commission
Unit 3 - The Judiciary
3.1 The Supreme Court of India
3.1.1 Composition
3.2 Jurisdiction and Powers
3.2.1 Original and Appellate Jurisdictions
3.2.2 Writ Jurisdiction
3.2.3 Need for Public Interest Litigation and Its Limitations
3.3 Custodian of the Constitution
3.3.1 Conflict between Executive and Judiciary
[Link] Pre-1973
[Link] Post-1973
[Link].1 Contemporary Developments
[Link].1.1 The Basic Structure Doctrine
[Link].2.2 Advantages and Limitations
[Link].2.3 Federal Constitution versus Basic Structure
Unit 4 - Right to Equality
4.1 Scope of the Right to Equality
4.2 New Approaches to Right to Equality
4.3 Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and admission to
educational institutions
Unit 5 - Freedom of Speech and Expression
5.1 Nature, Scope and Limitations
5.2 Freedom of Press and Challenges of New Scientific Development
Unit 6 - Emerging Regime of New Fundamental Rights
6.1 The Changing Dimension of Right to Life and Personal Liberty
6.2 Reading Preamble, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties into
Fundamental Rights
Unit 7 - Right to Freedom of Religion
7.1 The Scope of the Freedom and the State Control
7.2 Secularism and Chauvinism
Unit 8 - Working of the Constitution
8.1 Achievements and failures
8.2 New Challenges before the Constitution
8.3 The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution and Its
Recommendations
LAW AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA
Unit 1- Interaction between Law and Social Sciences
Unit 2 - Impact of Social Development on Law
Unit 3 - Law as an Instrument of Social Change
Unit 4 - Legal Idealism and the Sociological Approaches to Law
Unit 5 - Social Morality and Legal Order
Unit 6 - Role of Law, the Individual and the Welfare State
Unit 7 - Role of Law and the Function of Lawyer
Unit 8 - Economic, Social and Political Reforms and the Law
Unit 9 - Modernization and the Law
Unit 10 - Globalisation and the Law
ADMINISTRATION OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
UNIT-I -Jurisprudence of Justice Delivery System-Ancient to Modern
Legal aspects of Criminal Justice, Criminal Justice Ethics,
Structure of Criminal Justice
Role of Legislature, Police, Judiciary and prison system in Criminal Justice,
Co-Operation and Co-Ordination among the various sub systems of Criminal Justice
system
Contemporary forms of Crime
While Colour Crime, Organised Crime, Terrorism Crime Cyber Crime,
Environmental Crime, Media Crime, Narco Terrorism, Bio Terrorism.
UNIT-II- Prison Organisation India in and Modernisation of Prisons
Nature, meaning and importance of Punishment
Forms of Punishment in Ancient, Medieval and Modern times.
Theories of Punishment, New alternative forms of Punishment
UNIT-III - Juvenile Justice System-
Definition, nature and forms of Juvenile Delinquency.
Juvenile in conflicts with Law and latest Criminal Law Amendment
Changing Concept of Juvenile Delinquency from past to present.
Role of Police, Juvenile Justice Board, NGO’S and Child Welfare committee
UNIT-IV- A) Fundamentals of Police Administration in India
Historical Development of Police system in India, Organisational status of Indian
Police, Aims and Objectives of Police System.
The Police Act 1861 and Supreme Court’s Observation on the power of Police and
Police Administration,
Types of Police Organisation (State District Central Police Organisation,
International Criminal Police Organisations)
B) Social Legislation and Crime Growth of the Concept of Social Justice in India,
Social Legislation as interpreted by the Courts of Law in India,
Impact of Social Legislations on the Criminal Law in India
UNIT-V Human Rights in the Criminal Justice Administration.
Meaning nature and scope of Human Rights,
Human Rights in the Criminal Justice System (UDHR, ICCPR, ICESCR)
Preventive measures for the protection of Human Rights
a) Women’s Right
b) Prisoner’s Right
c) Victim’s Right
d) Freedom from torture.
BASIC OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA
Unit 1: Making of the constitution and philosophy of the constitution of India
Unit 2: State, Law and Citizenship
Unit 3: Directive principles of state policy
Unit 4: Parliamentary privileges
Unit 5: Services under the union and the States
SEMESTER II
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW-I
UNIT-I: Concept of constitution, Constitutional Law and Constitutionalism, Formation of
Constituent Assembly, Drafting of the Constitution of India and various interaction of forces,
adoption of the constitution and promulgation-1946 through 1950.
1.1 Preamble- Importance, amenability and judicial approach.
UNIT-II: Fundamental Rights- Concept, Nature-necessity and justification-fundamental
rights under Indian Constitution, Definition of State-other Authorities- Application of
Ejusdemgeneris-Instrumentality of Govt.-Private corporations- is Judiciary a state
2.1 Enforceability of Fundamental Rights- Judicial Review- Distinctions between Pre and
post Constitutional Law.
2.2 Doctrine of Eclipse-Doctrine of Severability-Doctrine of Waiver, Test for Infringement of
Fundamental Rights-Definition of Law-Amendment of Law-Concept of Basic Structure.
UNIT-III: Right to Equality-Equality before Law and Equal Protection of Laws-Reasonable
classification-Abse4nce of Arbitrariness- prohibition against discrimination-equality of
opportunity in public employment-concept of protective discrimination-prohibition of
untouchability- protection of civil Rights Act 1995(its features)
UNIT-1V: Freedom of Religion-Concept of Religion, Freedom of Conscience and Right to
profess, practice and propagate religion- Freedom to manage religion affairs- Freedom from
payment of tax for promotion of religion-restriction on religious instructions in certain
educational institution.
4.1 Right to minorities- right to conserve language, script of culture, admission to educational
institutions-minorities right to establish educational institutions.
UNIT-V: Right to Constitutional Remesies- features of Writ Jurisdiction under Art 32
Concept
of Locus Standi- Dynamic approach of Supreme Court on Public Interest Litigation- Judicial
Activism- Comparison between Art-32 and 226.
5.1 Restriction, Abrogation and suspension of fundamental Rights- Articles 32(4) 33 and 34
suspension of fundamental rights during Emergency Art-19
5.2 Power of president to suspend the enforcement of rights conferred under Part- III
relevance of 42nd and 44th Constitutional Amendment Act.
UNIT-VI: Directive Principles of State Policy-Nature, content and Justiciability-
interrelationship
between Fundamental rights and DPSP.
6.1 Transition of DPSP into Fundamental rights by judicial Interpretation- Fundamental
Rights and Fundamental Duties.
SUGGESTING READING: -
1. The Constitution of India, 1950.
2. D.D Basu, Shorter Constitution of India,2001 Wadhwa Nagpur.
3. J.N Pandey, The Constitutional Law of India
4. M.P Jain Indian Constitutional Law, Wadhwa Nagpur
5. B.K Sharma, Introduction t6o Constitution of India, Parentice Hall
6. P.K Tripathi Some insight into Fundamental Rights
7. S.P Sathe, Fundamental Rights and Amendment to the Constitution
8. [Link] Iyer Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.
9. P. Ishwara Bhat Inter-relationship between Fundamental Rights.
10. P.B Gajendragadkar Law, Liberty and Social Justice
CENTRE-STATE RELATIONS AND CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE
Objectives: The paper is aiming to give clear picture regarding the structure of the Indian
Polity and principles, procedures and practices that are compiled by the house of people and
the Government while unveiling any legislation/policy.
UNIT-I Nature of the Indian Polity
1. Forms of constitution – Unitary, federal, confederation – merits and demerits
2. Historical evolution of federal features: Government of India Act of 1919, Government of
India Act 1935
3. Nature of Indian polity
4. Judicial perspective over the nature of Indian polity
UNIT II: Union –State Legislative Relations
1. Scheme of distribution of legislative powers between Union and States;
2. General principles of interpretation relating to the various lists; Doctrine of pith and
Substance; Doctrine of Colourable Legislation and Doctrine of Territorial Nexus.
3. Residuary powers, Doctrine of Occupied Field, Parliament’s power to legislative on the
State List
4. Legislative powers of the parliament during emergency
UNIT III: Administration and Financial Relations
1. Distribution of Executive and Financial Powers
2. Finance commission
3. All India Services
4. Centre’s directive to state.
UNIT IV: Emergency Provisions
1. Emergency provisions; Article 352,356 and 360
2. Cooperative federalism
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. K.C. Wheare, Federal Government
2. Jain M.P. Outlines of Indian Legal History.
3. M.V. Pylee, Constitutional History of India.
4. Rama Jois M, Legal and Constitutional History of India.
5. Stetalvad M.C. Constitutional History of India
6. Keith A.B. Constitutional History of India
7. H.M. Seervai, Constitutional Law of India –Vol. I and II
8. G.C.V. Subbarao, Legislative powers in India Constitutional law. 10
9. V.D Sebastain, India federalism: the legislative conflict
10. L.M Singhvi, Union State Relations in India
11. K. Subba Rao, The Indian Federation.
12. K.P Krishna Shetty, The Law OF Union State Relations and Indian Federalism.
13. Ashok Chandra, Federalism in India.
14. Subba Rao G C V Indian Constitutional Law
15. Pande G S Constitutional Law of India
16. Saharay HK Constitution of India
17. Plyee M.V Our Constitution government & politics
18. Tope T K Constitutional Law of India
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW-I
UNIT I
1. Evolution and significance of Administrative Law in various systems of governance-from
ancient to modern.
a) England and USA
b) France
c) Other systems
2. Doctrine of Separation of Powers: Comparative survey-Common Law and Continental
System: England, USA, France and India from Rigidity to Flexibility.
3. Rule of Law: Changing dimensions, Regulation of administrative process.
UNIT II
Delegated Legislation: Problems, Process and Control, Judicial Review of delegated
legislation.
UNIT III
Procedural Fairness: Evolution and Significance of Natural Justice, England: Judicial
Process, Doctrine of fairness and doctrine of legitimate expectation. U.S.: Due process and
judicial decision, India: Through judicial decision-Doctrine of Fairness (Art.14, 19, 21)-
Doctrine of Legitimate Expectation, Privilege against disclosure, official secrecy, Access to
information and Right to Information Act.
UNIT IV:
Control on Maladministration: Ombudsman, Commissions of Inquiry, Vigilance
Commissions,
Investigative Agencies: The CBI, Inquiries by Legislative Committee, Legislative control,
Judicial Inquiries.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Pater H. Schunk, Foundation of Administrative Law, 1994
2. Friedman, The State and Rule of law in a mixed Economy.
3. Ivor Jennings, Law & the Constitution
4. Schwartz and Wade, Legal Control of Government31
5. De Smith, Judicial Review of Administrative Action, 1998
6. [Link], Comparative Administrative Law, 1998
7. [Link] and [Link], Lok Ayukta: A Socio-Legal Study, 1988
8. Jain & Jain, Principles of Administrative Law
JUDICIAL PROCESS
Unit 1 – Justice, Law and Society
1.1 The Concept of Justice
1.1.1 Justice Delivery Mechanisms – Formal Institutions and Informal Institutions
1.2 Role of Law in Rendering Justice
1.2.1 Law and Justice
1.2.2 Is Law the Only Means of Delivering Justice?
1.2.3 Alternatives/Options to Law as a Means of Adjudication
1.3 Theories of Justice
1.3.1 The Concept of ‘Dharma’ and Justice in Indian Legal Philosophy
1.3.2 Western Legal Theory
1.3.3 Rawls’ Theory of Justice
1.3.4 Justice in the Contemporary Society
Unit 2 - The Nature of Judicial Process
2.1 Judicial Process as an Instrument of Social Ordering
2.1.1 Judicial Process and Creativity in Law
[Link] The Function of Courts and Judges – To Find the Law or Make the Law
2.2 The Tools and Techniques of Judicial Creativity and Precedents
2.2.1 Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
[Link] Historical Development – Madbury v. Madison case
[Link] Developments in India – PIL and SAL
Unit 3 - Judicial Process in India
3.1 Indian Debate on the Role of Judges
3.2 The Notion of Judicial Review
3.3 The Need to Exercise Restraint in Judicial Creativity
3.4 New Challenges before the Judiciary
Unit 4 - Independence of Judiciary and the Nature of Judicial Process
4.1 Independence of Judiciary – Constitutional Pledge and Practice
4.1 Provisions under the Indian Constitution guaranteeing Independence of Judiciary
4.2 Conflict between Executive and Judiciary
4.3 Appointment & Transfer of Judges vis-a-vis Independence of Judiciary 12
Unit 5 - Judicial Activism and Constitutional Obligations of the Court
5.1 Evolution and Development of Judicial Activism
5.2 Reasons in Defence of Judicial Activism
5.3 Constitution of India and Judicial Activism
5.4 Role Played by the Supreme Court of India
5.5 The Tools and Techniques of the Judicial Activism
5.6 Need to Balance between Restraint and Judicial Activism
Unit 6 – Decision-making Process in the Supreme Court of India
6.1 Judgements by Constitutional Benches
6.2 Nature of Participation
6.2.1 Dissent
6.2.2 Concurrence
6.2.3 Unanimity
6.2.4 Majority Vote
SEMESTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Part A - Legal Education (this portion shall comprise of 25% marks only)
Unit 1 - Objectives of Legal Education
Unit 2 - Lecture Method of Teaching
2.1 Merits and Demerits
Unit 3 - Discussion Method and Seminar Method of Teaching
Unit 4 - Examination System and Problems in Evaluation
Part B: Research Methodology (this portion shall comprise of 75% marks only)
Unit 1 – Research
1.1 Meaning and Objectives
1.2 Importance
1.3 Kinds
1.4 Criteria of Good Research
1.5 Problems of Researchers in India
Unit 2 - Research Methodology
2.1 Importance
2.2 Procedural Guidelines regarding Research Process
2.3 Formulation of Research Problem
2.4 Different Steps of Research
Unit 3 - Survey of the Literature
3.1 Working Hypothesis
3.3 Determination of Sample Design
3.3 Collection of Data and Analysis
3.4 Test of Hypothesis
Unit 4 - Writing a Research Report
4.1 Different Steps
4.2 Layout of Research Report
4.2.1 Preliminary
4.2.2 Main Test
4.2.3 Conclusion
4.2.4 Observation
Unit 5 – Requirements of Writing a Research Report
5.1 Practical Aspect
5.2 Physical Design
5.3 Treatment of Quotation
5.4 Footnotes
5.5 Documentation & Style
5.6 Abbreviations
5.7 Bibliography
5.8 Index
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW-II
UNIT:1
Growth and development of administrative law in India
Rule of law, delegated legislation, natural justice in the Indian administrative law
UNIT: II
Administrative discretionary power
UNIT: III
Administrative adjudication
UNIT: IV
Doctrine of ultravires and its component
Ombudsman and Lokpal
UNIT: V
Separation of power in India, USA, England
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW-II
1. Principles of Parliamentary and Presidential forms of Govt.-Parliament in U.K and Congress
in USA
2. Nature of the Executive Power-Impeachment Process-Mercy Power-Ordinance making
Power
3. Composition of House of Legislature-Disqualifications of members-Legislative Privileges
Parliamentary procedures.
4. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and High Courts-Judicial self-restraint and judicial
Activism-Limits on Judicial Review- Appointment of Judges-Control of Subordinate Judiciary.
5. Doctrine of Pleasure-Constitutional exceptions and Judicial Implications.
6. The concept of Federalism-Necessity and Justification of Federal Govt-features of
Federalism.
7. Legislative relations under the Indian Constitution-Doctrines in Legislatives relations-
centre’s control over State Legislatures.
8. Administrative relations between Union and States, Federal features and credit clause-centre
State and Inter State Conflict management.
9. Restrictions on the power of State Legislatures on Fiscal Powers-Residuary Taxes-
Distribution of revenues between the Centre and State-Doctrine of Immunities of
Instrumentalities-Role of Finance Commission.
10. Power of Judicial Review Centre- State and Inter State Conflicts.
11 Freedom of Trade and Commerce-Expectations-Importance of Federal Structure.
12. Types of Emergencies and their impact on Federal Structure.
SUGGESTED READINGS: -
1. K.C Whereas Federal Government.
2. M.P Jain Indian Constitutional Law
3. Frederick and Barn studies in Federalism.
4. M.C Saxena Dynamics of Federalism
5. Ivor Jennings Cabinet and Constitution.
6. The Constitution of India, 1950.
7. D.D Basu, Shorter Constitution of India,2001 Wadhwa Nagpur.
8. J.N Pandey, The Constitutional Law of India
9. M.P Jain Indian Constitutional Law, Wadhwa Nagpur
10. B.K Sharma, Introduction t6o Constitution of India, Parentice Hall
HUMAN RIGHTS
Unit 1 - International Concern
1.1 Protection of Individual in International Law
1.2 League of Nations
1.3 War Crime Trials
Unit 2 - Human Rights and the United Nations Charter
2.1 Normative and Institutional Framework of the UN
2.2 Role of The Permanent Bodies of the UN
2.3 Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
Unit 3 - Universal Declaration on Human Rights
3.1 History of the Declaration
3.2 Structure of the Declaration
3.3 Legal Significance
Unit 4 - International Covenants: ICCPR and ICESCR
4.1 Nature and Characteristics
4.2 Optional Protocols
Unit 5 - Regional Instruments
5.1 European Convention on Human Rights
5.2 American Convention on Human Rights
5.3 African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
5.4 Asia and Human Rights
SEMESTER IV
COMPARATIVE AND COOPERATIVE FEDERALISM
Unit 1 - Concept of Federalism
1.1 Requisite Conditions of Federalism
1.2 Patterns of federal government of U.S.A. and Australia
1.3 Federal Control v. State Autonomy
Unit 2 - Indian Federal Constitution and its Present Shape
2.1 Indian Constitution – Unitary or Federal
2.2 The Concept of Quasi-Federalism and Practice in India
2.3 Comparative Study between GOI Act, 1935 and Constitution of India, 1950
Unit 3 - The Changing Dimension of Modern Federal Constitutions
3.1 New trends in Federalism
3.2 National Supremacy
3.3 Cooperative Federalism
Unit 4 - Distribution of Legislative Powers in India - Comparative Study of U.S.A. and
Australia
4.1 The Specific Legislative Powers - Defence & External Affairs
4.2 Major Recommendations of Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions
Unit 5 - Emergency Provisions
5.1 Effect of Emergency on the Federal Structure
5.2 Judicial Approach
5.3 Indian and American Experiences
Unit 6 - Judicial Review for Federal Umpiring
6.1 Scope of Judicial Review in the Federal Constitutions
6.1.1 The Approach of Indian & American Supreme Courts
Unit 7 - Scope of Constituent Power
7.1 Amending Process and Process in Action
7.2 Judicial Response
7.2.1 Judicial Rescue of the Constitution – Basic Structure Principle
7.2.2 Basic Structure and Constitutional (Federal) Questions
CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS - COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECT
CONSTITUTIONS
Unit 1 – Constitutional Basis for Protection of Individual Rights
1.1 Scheme and Scope of Fundamental Rights
1.2 Limitations of Rights
1.3 Balancing Individual Rights and Social Interests
Unit 2 - Right to Equality
2.1 General Principles
2.2 Protective Discrimination with Special Reference to Emerging Judicial Response to
the Problems of Group Inequalities
2.2.1 Implementation of Protective Discrimination
2.2.2 Politicisation of Constitutional Protections
2.3 Comparative study of selected Indian and American case laws
Unit 3 - Freedom of Speech and Expression
3.1 Freedom of Press
3.1.1 Law and Practice in India and USA
3.1.2 Section 66A of IT Act and article 19 (2)
[Link] The Concept of Security and State
[Link] Freedom of Expression and social media
Unit 4 - Right to Life and Personal Liberty
4.1 Judicial Determination of the Scope of:
4.1.1 “Personal liberty”
4.1.2 “Procedure established by law”
4.1.3 The American expressions “liberty” and “due process”
4.2 Expansion of the Scope and Dimensions of article 21
4.2.1 Extra-Constitutional & Special Security Legislations
4.2.2 Health and Law
Unit 5 - Freedom of Religion
5.1 Law and Practice in India and USA
5.2 Forcible Conversion and Religious Chauvinism
Unit 6 - Amendment of Rights
6.1 Need for Amendments – Emerging Social and Economic Challenges
6.2 Amenability
6.2.1 Comparative Study between Power and Procedure under the American and Indian
Constitutions
Unit 7 - Elections and the Franchise
7.1 Constitutional Foundation of the Right to Vote
7.2 Is there also a right not to vote in a Democracy?
7.2.1 Vote and Democracy
7.3 The Voting Rights Act
7.4 Judicial Supervision of Elections
HUMAN RIGHTS AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
Unit 1 - History and Development of Human Rights in Indian Constitution
1.1 Constitutional Philosophy
1.2 Preamble
1.3 Fundamental Rights
Unit 2 - Right to Equality
2.1 Gender Justice and Empowerment of Women
2.2 Special Provisions for Weaker Sections of Society
2.2.1 Reservation Policy under the Constitution
2.2.2 Challenges to Reservation Policy
Unit 3 - Freedom of Speech and Expression
3.1 Freedom of Press and Its Limitations
3.2 Right to Information – Law and Practice
Unit 4 - Right to Life and Personal Liberty
4.1 Judicial Approach
4.1.1 Pre-1978 Approach
4.1.2 Post-1978 Jurisprudence
Unit 5 - Right to Freedom of Religion
5.1 Secularism – Constitutional Norms and Realities – Forcible Conversion
5.2 Protection to Minorities under the Constitution
Unit 6 - Implementation and Enforcement Mechanism of Human Rights in India
6.1 Judicial Remedies – Evolution of Right of Compensatory Justice
6.2 National Human Rights Commission
Unit 7 - Fundamental Duties
7.1 Article 51-A of the Constitution concept and the relevance of Fundamental Duties
7.2 Enforcement and Effectuation of Fundamental Duties
Unit 8 - Emerging Regime of New Human Rights in India
8.1 Cumulative Interpretation of Preamble, Directive Principles of State Policy,
Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties of the Constitution