Introduction to Linear Algebra –

Qubit States: Superposition - Entanglement

By
Dr. K. Sudharson
Qubit States
Superposition
Entanglement
Bloch Sphere Representation
What Is the Bloch Sphere?

The Bloch Sphere is a 3D geometric representation of a single

qubit’s pure quantum state.

• Every point on the surface of the sphere corresponds to a

unique quantum state.

• It gives a visual way to understand how qubits behave, evolve,

and how gates act on them — crucial for QML models.
The Bloch sphere is a visual representation of
a qubit’s quantum state — that is, any linear
combination of the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩.
Think of it as a 3D unit sphere where any pure
state of a single qubit lies on the surface.
Bloch Sphere Representation
Bloch Sphere Representation
Bloch Sphere Representation
Examples of Bloch Sphere States
State Name Quantum State Angles (θ, φ) Coordinates (x, y, z) Location on Bloch Sphere
θ=0
|0⟩ state |0⟩ (0, 0, 1) North pole (Z+ axis)
φ=0
θ=π
|1⟩ state |1⟩ (0, 0, -1) South pole (Z- axis)
φ=0
θ = π/2
|+⟩ state 1/√2 (|0⟩ + |1⟩) (1, 0, 0) Positive X-axis
φ=0
θ = π/2
|-⟩ state 1/√2 (|0⟩ - |1⟩) (-1, 0, 0) Negative X-axis
φ=π
θ = π/2
|+i⟩ state 1/√2 (|0⟩ + i|1⟩) (0, 1, 0) Positive Y-axis
φ = π/2
θ = π/2
|-i⟩ state 1/√2 (|0⟩ - i|1⟩) (0, -1, 0) Negative Y-axis
φ = 3π/2
θ = π/4
Intermediate cos(π/8)|0⟩ + sin(π/8)|1⟩ (√2/2, 0, √2/2) Between North pole and +X
φ=0
θ = 3π/4
Intermediate sin(π/8)|0⟩ + cos(π/8)|1⟩ (√2/2, 0, -√2/2) Between South pole and +X
φ=0
θ ∈ [0, π] (sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos
General cos(θ/2)|0⟩ + eiφsin(θ/2)|1⟩ Any point on sphere
φ ∈ [0, 2π) θ)
Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Introduction to Linear Algebra –
Vector Space
By
Dr. K. Sudharson
Vector Space
Why Learn Linear Algebra in QML?

Quantum computing and machine learning both rely heavily on vectors and
vector spaces to describe:
• Quantum states (e.g., qubits in Dirac or column vector form)
• Operations (like transformations via matrices)
• Measurements (via inner products and projections)

Understanding vector spaces allows you to comprehend quantum states as

mathematical objects and manipulate them in a rigorous way.
Vector Space - What is a Vector?
A vector is simply a collection (or list) of numbers, often arranged in a
column.
For example:

• These numbers are called components or coordinates.

Vector Space – Formal Definition
A vector space is a collection of vectors that satisfies:

• Addition: You can add any two vectors in the space, and the result is still in the space.

• Scalar multiplication: You can multiply any vector by a number (called a scalar), and the result is still in the
space.
Example:

• All results are still in R2, so it's a vector space.

Vector Space - Basis and Dimension
• A basis of a vector space is a set of linearly independent vectors that
can be combined to produce any vector in the space.
• The dimension of the space is the number of vectors in the basis.
Example:
Vector Space - Important Operations
Vector Space in Quantum Computing
Vector Space - Qubits
1. Qubits live in a vector space
• In quantum computing, a qubit (quantum bit) isn't just a 0 or 1.

• It’s a vector in a special kind of vector space called ℂ² (pronounced "C

two"), meaning:
• It’s a 2-dimensional space,

• and its components (entries) are complex numbers (numbers like 1 + 2i)
Vector Space - Qubits
1. Standard basis vectors: |0⟩ and |1⟩
• These are like the "x" and "y" unit directions in regular math:

• They form the basis of the vector space, meaning all valid qubit states
can be formed using combinations of these two.
Vector Space - Qubits
2. Standard basis vectors: |0⟩ and |1⟩
• These are like the "x" and "y" unit directions in regular math:

• They form the basis of the vector space, meaning all valid qubit states
can be formed using combinations of these two.
Vector Space - Qubits
3. Superposition: Combining |0⟩ and |1⟩

A qubit state can be a combination (called a superposition) of both |0⟩ and |1⟩:

∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩

Where:

• α and β are complex numbers (like 1, -i, 0.6 + 0.8i, etc. )

• The sum of their squared magnitudes must equal 1:

∣α∣2+∣β∣2=1

• This condition ensures that the qubit is normalized — so we can interpret ∣α∣2 as the
probability of getting 0 if we measure, and ∣β∣2 as the probability of getting 1.
Vector Space - Qubits
Understanding Complex Numbers in Qubits
Understanding Complex Numbers in Qubits
Understanding Complex Numbers in Qubits
Understanding Complex Numbers in Qubits
Inner Products
What Is an Inner Product?
An inner product is a way to measure the “overlap” between two
vectors.
In quantum mechanics, it tells us things like:
• Probability of measuring one quantum state if the system is in another.

• Whether two states are orthogonal (completely different).

Inner Products
Inner Product in Complex Vector Spaces
For two vectors ∣ϕ⟩ and ∣ψ⟩, their inner product is:

Where:
• is the complex conjugate of the iii-th component of ϕ
• This ensures the result is a complex scalar
Inner Products
Inner Products
Inner Products
In Quantum Mechanics
If a quantum system is in state ∣ψ⟩,
and we want to know the
probability of finding it in state ∣ϕ⟩,
we use:

This is the core math behind

quantum measurements.
Notations
• Ket (| ⟩): Represents a quantum state as a column vector in a complex
vector space.

• Bra (⟨ |): Represents the dual vector or linear functional of a ket,

essentially a row vector.

• Inner Product (⟨ | ⟩): The result of combining a bra and a ket, yielding a
complex number. For example, ⟨a|b⟩ is the inner product of states |a⟩
and |b⟩.

• Outer Product (| ⟩⟨ |): Combining a ket and a bra, resulting in a matrix.

Introduction to Linear Algebra –
Matrices & Eigen
By
Dr. K. Sudharson
Associate Professor,
Department of CSE,
Vel Tech University
Defining Matix
What is a Matrix?
A matrix is a 2D array of numbers (real or complex) arranged in rows
and columns.
Think of it as a machine that transforms vectors.
General form:

• This is a 2×2 matrix: 2 rows, 2 columns.

Types of Matrices in Quantum Computing
Types of Matrices in Quantum Computing
Types of Matrices in Quantum Computing
Types of Matrices in Quantum Computing
Matrix Multiplication (Quantum Circuits)

Quantum gates (matrices) are chained together by multiplying

matrices:

If A and B are two gates:

• (A⋅B)∣ψ⟩=A(B∣ψ⟩)

This is how quantum circuits apply operations step by step.

Matrix Multiplication (Quantum Circuits)
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
1. What Are Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors?

In Linear Algebra, for a square matrix A, an eigenvector is a non-zero vector ⃗ such that:

A ⃗ =λ ⃗

Where:

• ⃗ is the eigenvector

• Λ is the eigenvalue (a scalar)

Intuition:

• An eigenvector is a direction that does not change under the transformation A — it just gets
scaled by λ.
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
2. How to Find Them (Basic Steps)
Given:
A ⃗ =λ ⃗ ⇒(A−λI) ⃗ =0A
Steps:
[Link] the characteristic equation:

[Link](A−λI)=0

[Link] for λ: eigenvalues

[Link] each λ back into (A−λI) ⃗ =0 to find eigenvectors

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors in QML
Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors in QML
Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors in QML
6. Use in Quantum PCA (qPCA)

In Quantum PCA:

1. The goal is to extract principal components (like in classical PCA)

2. A quantum state ρ is analyzed for its eigenvalues and eigenvectors

3. Low-eigenvalue directions may be discarded — just like classical dimensionality

reduction
Introduction to Linear Algebra –
Complex Numbers, Probability &
Complex Hilbert Spaces in QML
By
Dr. K. Sudharson
Key Operations
Complex Numbers in Quantum Probability
In quantum computing:
• States are represented using complex vectors
• Probability of measuring a state is based on the square of magnitude
Example:
If a quantum state is:
• ∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩, α,β∈C
Then:
• ∣α∣2 = probability of measuring ∣0⟩
• ∣β∣2 = probability of measuring ∣1⟩
Normalization rule:
∣α∣2 + ∣β∣2 = 1
Complex Hilbert Space
A Hilbert space is a complete vector space with an inner product.
When the field is complex numbers, we call it a complex Hilbert
space.
Formal Definition:
A Complex Hilbert space is a vector space H over C with:
1. Vector addition and scalar multiplication
2. An inner product ⟨u∣v⟩ ∈ C
3. Norm: ∥v∥= ⟨v∣v⟩
4. Complete: All Cauchy sequences converge
Example: Qubit in Hilbert Space
Complex Numbers - Summary
• Quantum states live in complex Hilbert spaces
• Complex numbers are used to represent amplitudes
• Probability = square of magnitude of complex coefficients
• Inner product = projection, used in measurement, overlap, and
unitarity
Born Rule & Quantum Measurement
What is the Born Rule?
The Born Rule gives the probability of measuring a quantum state in a
particular basis.
• Let the quantum state be:
• ∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩ where α,β∈C
The Born Rule says:
P(0)=∣α∣2, P(1)=∣β∣2
These represent the probabilities of obtaining measurement outcomes
∣0⟩or ∣1⟩, respectively.
Born Rule & Quantum Measurement
Quantum Measurement
In quantum mechanics, measurement:
• Collapses the state to one of the basis vectors
• The outcome depends on the probability given by the Born Rule
After Measurement:
If measurement in the computational basis (∣0⟩,∣1⟩) gives ∣1⟩:
• ∣ψ⟩⟶∣1⟩
The original superposition is destroyed after measurement.
Dirac Notation
Dirac Notation: Bras, Kets, and Operators (for QML)
1. What is Dirac Notation?

• Dirac notation is a symbolic language used in quantum mechanics to represent quantum states, inner
products, and linear operators.
Dirac Notation
Dirac Notation: Bras, Kets, and Operators (for QML)
Dirac Notation
Operator Representations
Notations
• Ket (| ⟩): Represents a quantum state as a column vector in a complex
vector space.

• Bra (⟨ |): Represents the dual vector or linear functional of a ket,

essentially a row vector.

• Inner Product (⟨ | ⟩): The result of combining a bra and a ket, yielding a
complex number. For example, ⟨a|b⟩ is the inner product of states |a⟩
and |b⟩.

• Outer Product (| ⟩⟨ |): Combining a ket and a bra, resulting in a matrix.