Chapter 02: Various Forms of Energy
1 Introduction
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another.
Heat is another important energy form; a lot of effort and expense is made by society to remove
heat from our homes and offices as well as radiation.
In practical terms, energy is what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by
energizing our muscles, by producing electricity, or by using mechanical devices such as
automobiles. Energy comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical,
electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.
2 Various Forms of Energy
There are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: stored (potential)
energy and working (kinetic) energy. For example, the food we eat contains chemical energy,
and our body stores this energy until we release it when we work or play.
2.1 Stored Energy
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational). It exists in various
forms.
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is stored in the bonds that connect atoms with other atoms and molecules with
other molecules. When a chemical reaction takes place, the stored chemical energy is released.
Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom the core of atoms, made up of
protons and neutrons - the energy that holds the nucleus together. It is released when the atoms
split. The Nuclear energy is harvested using uranium atom.
Stored Mechanical Energy
Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed
springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.
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Gravitational Energy
Gravitational energy is energy stored in an object's height. The higher and heavier the object,
the more gravitational energy is stored. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam stores
gravitational potential energy. When the water is released to spin the turbines, the stored energy
is converted into motion energy.
2.2 Working (kinetic) Energy
It is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and sub-stances. It
exists in various forms.
Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radi-
ant energy.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy contained within a system that is responsible for
its temperature and cause the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within system.
Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
Motion
The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion. Wind and
hydropower are examples of motion.
Sound
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)
waves.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of elec-
trical energy.
2.3 Energy Conversion
Energy is always conserved which means that it can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy
may be transformed from one form to another. We have already discussed various forms of
energy. You will learn the path that the energy takes to be converted into another form of energy.
The process of energy conversion can be divided into Direct and Indirect Conversion.
• Direct conversion is a single-step process as with photovoltaic conversion of solar energy
(electromagnetic energy) into electrical energy.
• Indirect conversion is a Multi-step conversion process for instance.
Coal burns to generate heat -->
Heat boils water -->
Water turns into steam --> More the number of
Steam pressure turns a turbine --> conversion stages, lesser
Turbine turns an electric generator --> the overall energy
efficiency
Generator produces electricity -->
Electricity powers light bulbs -->
Light bulbs give off light and heat.
The indirect conversion involves a number of conversion stages. Each of the conversion stage
involves some losses. Lesser are the conversion stages, more is the overall efficiency.
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3 Electrical Energy Basics
Electric current is divided into two types: Directional Current (DC) and Alternating Current
(AC).
Directional (Direct) Current
A non-varying, unidirectional electric current (Example: Current produced by batteries)
Characteristics:
• Direction of the flow of negative charges does not change with time
• Direction of current is constant with time
• Potential difference (voltage) between two points of the circuit does not change polarity
with time.
Alternating Current
A current which reverses in regularly recurring intervals of time and which has alternately
positive and negative values and occurring a specified number of times per second. (Example:
Household electricity produced by generators; Electricity supplied by utilities.)
Characteristics:
· Direction of the current reverses periodically with time
· Voltage (tension) between two points of the circuit changes polarity with time.
· In 50 cycle AC, current reverses direction 100 times a second (two times during onecycle)
Ampere (A)
Current is the rate of flow of charge. The ampere is the basic unit of electric current.
Voltage (V)
The volt is the International System of Units (SI) measure of electric potential or electromotive
force.
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Ohm' Law
Ohm's Law states that the current flowing in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the material.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
Frequency
The supply frequency tells us the cycles at which alternating current changes. The unit of
frequency is hertz (Hz: cycles per second).
Kilovolt Ampere (kVA)
It is the product of kilovolts and amperes. Apparent power measures the power the AC network
must be able to withstand. It is also called the apparent power.
Voltage x Amperes
For a single-phase electrical circuit, Apparent power (kVA) =
1000
= 3 x Voltage x Amperes
For a three-phase electrical circuit, apparent power (kVA)
1000
kVAr (Reactive Power)
kVAr is the reactive power. Reactive power is the portion of apparent power that unavailable to
do work. The reactive power is non-useful power that flows back and forth in the transmission
lines. This type of power must be supplied to all types of magnetic equipment, such as motors,
trans-formers because is used to build the magnetic field. Larger the magnetizing requirement,
larger the kVAr.
Kilowatt (kW) (Active Power)
kW is the active power or the work-producing part of apparent power.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 sin𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊 ) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
1000
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊 ) = √3×𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
1000
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Power Factor
Power Factor (PF) is the ratio between the active power (kW) and apparent power (kVA).
Expresses the ratio of true power used in a circuit to the apparent power delivered to the circuit.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed by 1000 Watts in one hour. If 1kW (1000 watts) of a elec-
trical equipment is operated for 1 hour, it would consume 1 kWh of energy (1 unit of electrici-
ty).
For an electricity company, the kWh is a unit of energy used to calculate the energy delivered
to customers. The company is charged / billed based on kWh consumption.
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4. Thermal Energy Basics
Temperature and Pressure
Temperature and pressure are measures of the physical state of a substance. They are closely
related to the energy contained in the substance. As a result, measurements of temperature and
pressure provide a means of determining energy content.
Temperature
It is the degree of hotness or coldness measured on a definite scale. Temperature is a direct
measurement of thermal energy of an object, meaning that the hotter an object is, the more
thermal energy it has.
In the Celsius scale the freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point of water is 100°C, at
atmospheric pressure.
To change temperature given in Fahrenheit (°F) to Celsius (°C), use the below relationship:
°C = (°F - 32) x 5/9
To change the temperature given in Celsius (°C) to kelvin, use the below relationship:
K=°C+273.15
Pressure
It is the force per unit area applied to outside of a body. When we heat a gas in a confined space,
we create more force, a pressure increase. For example, heating the air inside a balloon will
cause the balloon to stretch as the pressure increases.
Pressure, therefore, is also indicative of stored energy. Steam at high pressures contains
much more energy than at low pressures.
Heat
Heat is the flow of thermal energy between objects with different temperatures. Whenever two
things of different temperatures are near one another, thermal energy flows. This flowing energy
is called heat.
• Unit of Heat
Calorie is the unit for measuring the quantity of heat. It is the quantity of heat, which can raise
the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
However, nowadays generally joule as the unit of heat energy is used. It is the internation-ally
accepted unit. Its relationship with calorie is as follows:
1 Calorie = 4.187 J
The quantity of heat, Q, supplied to a substance to increase its temperature by T°C depends on
– Mass of the substance (g)
– Increase in temperature (∆t)
– Specific heat of the substance (Cp) (J/g.°C)
The quantity of heat is given by:
𝑄 = 𝑚 × ∆𝑇 × 𝐶𝑃
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Specific Heat
This property is called the specific heat of a substance and is defined as the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance through 1°C.
The specific heat of water is very high as compared to other common substances; it takes a
lot of heat to raise the temperature of water. Also, when water is cooled, it gives out a large
quantity of heat.
TABLE 1: SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOME COMMON
SUBSTANCES
Substance Specific Heat (Joules / kg °C)
Lead 130
Mercury 140
Brass 380
Copper 390
Iron 470
Glass 670
Aluminium 910
Rubber 1890
Ice 2100
Alcohol 2400
Water 4200
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5. Units and Conversions
The energy units are wide and varied. The usage of units varies with country, industry sector.
Energy Units
1 barrel of oil = 42 gallons (gal) = 0.16 cubic meters (m3)
1 MW 1,000 kW
1 kW 1,000 Watts
1 kWh 3,412 Btu
1 kWh 1.340 Hp hours
1,000 Btu 0.293 kWh
1 Therm 100,000 Btu (British Thermal Units)
1 Million Btu 293.1 Kilowatt hours
100,000 Btu 1 Therm
1 Watt 3.412 Btu per hour
1 Horsepower (hp) 746 Watts or 0.746 Kilo Watts
1 Horsepower (hp) 2,545 Btu (British Thermal Unit)
1 kJ 0.239005 Kilocalories
1 Calorie 4.187 Joules
1 kcal/Kg 1.8 Btu's/lb.
1 Million Btu 252 Mega calories
1 Btu 252 Calories
1 Btu 1,055 Joules
1 Btu/lb. 2.3260 kJ/kg
1 Btu/lb. 0.5559 Kilocalories/kg
Power (Energy Rate) Equivalents
1 kilowatt (kW) 1 kilo joule /second (kJ/s)
1 kilowatt (kW) 3413 BTU/hour (Btu/hr.)
1 horsepower (hp) 746 watts (0.746 kW)
1 Ton of refrigeration 12000 Btu/hr.
Power:
1 W = 1 J/s = 0.9478×10-3 Btu/s = 3.41214 Btu/hr
Pressure:
Atmospheric pressure=101.325 kPa at sea level.
Units of measure of pressure:
Metric (SI) : kilopascals (kPa)
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton/m2 (N/m2)
1 physical atmosphere (atm) = 101325 Pa
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Prefixes for units in the International System
Prefix Symbol Power Example
exa E 1018
peta P 1015 Pentagram (Pg)
12
tera T 10 Terawatt (TW)
9
giga G 10 Gigawatt (GW)
mega M 106 Megawatt (MW)
3
kilo k 10 Kilogram (Kg)
2
hecto h 10 Hectoliter (Hl)
1
deka da 10 Dekagram (Dag)
deci d 10-1 Decimeter (Dm)
-2
centi c 10 Centimeter (Cm)
-3
milli m 10 Millimeter (Mm)
-6
micro 10 Micrometer (M)
nano n 10-9 Nanosecond (Ns)
pico p 10-12 Picofarad (Pf)
femto f 10-15 Femtogram (Fg)
atto a 10-18
Energy
To: TJ Gcal Mtoe MBtu GWh
From: Multiply by:
TJ 1 238.8 2.388 x 10-5 947.8 0.2778
-3 -7
Gcal 4.1868 x 10 1 10 3.968 1.163 x 10-3
Mtoe 4.1868 x 104 107 1 3.968 x 107 11630
MBtu 1.0551 x 10-3 0.252 2.52 x 10-8 1 2.931 x 10-4
GWh 3.6 860 8.6 x 10-5 3412 1
Mass
To: kg t lt st lb
From: multiply by:
kilogram (kg) 1 0.001 9.84 x 10-4 1.102 x 10-3 2.2046
tonne (t) 1000 1 0.984 1.1023 2204.6
long ton (lt) 1016 1.016 1 1.120 2240.0
short ton (st) 907.2 0.9072 0.893 1 2000.0
pound (lb) 0.454 4.54 x 10-4 4.46 x 10-4 5.0 x 10-4 1
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Volume
To: gal U.S. gal U.K. bbl ft3 l m3
From: multiply by:
U.S. gallon (gal) 1 0.8327 0.02381 0.1337 3.785 0.0038
U.K. gallon (gal) 1.201 1 0.02859 0.1605 4.546 0.0045
Barrel (bbl) 42.0 34.97 1 5.615 159.0 0.159
3
Cubic foot (ft ) 7.48 6.229 0.1781 1 28.3 0.0283
Litre (l) 0.2642 0.220 0.0063 0.0353 1 0.001
3
Cubic metre (m ) 264.2 220.0 6.289 35.3147 1000.0 1
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