Geotechnical Engineering – Formula Notes for GATE/UPSC/IES
Index Properties of Soil
• Water content: w = (W_water / W_dry solids) × 100%
• Void ratio (e) = V_v / V_s
• Porosity (n) = e / (1+e)
• Degree of saturation (S) = V_w / V_v × 100%
• Specific gravity (G) = ρ_s / ρ_w
• Bulk unit weight γ = (G γ_w (1+w)) / (1+e), Dry unit weight γ_d = G γ_w / (1+e)
• Relation: e = (G w)/S
Example: Example (UPSC 1991): Cylindrical soil, w=15%, air voids=20%, G=2.69. Find dry mass
and water required. → M_d = 301.1 g, M_w = 45.2 g.
Permeability
• Darcy’s Law: Q = k i A
• Constant head: k = (Q L)/(A h)
• Falling head: k = (2.3 a L)/(A ∆t) log10(h1/h2)
• Stratified soil: kH = Σ(k_i H_i)/ΣH_i, kV = ΣH_i / Σ(H_i/k_i)
Example: Example (ESE 2021): Constant head test, k ≈ 3.06×10³ m/year.
Seepage
• Hydraulic gradient i = ∆h / L
• Darcy velocity v = k i
• Seepage velocity vs = v/n
• Seepage force per unit volume F = γ_w i
• Critical gradient ic = (G-1)/(1+e)
Example: Quick sand condition check using ic formula.
Compaction
• γ_d = γ/(1+w)
• Proctor test → Max γ_d at Optimum Moisture Content
• n = 1 - (γ_d / (G γ_w))
Example: Example (ESE 1995): Soil borrow vs compacted fill → Borrow volume = 1056 m³, water
to add = 99 m³.
Consolidation
• Settlement (S) = (Cc/(1+e0)) H log((σ0'+∆σ')/σ0')
• Coefficient of consolidation Cv = (0.197 H²)/t50
• Time factor Tv ≈ 0.2 at 50% consolidation
Example: Used for clay settlement and time prediction.
Shear Strength
• Mohr-Coulomb: τ = c' + σ' tan φ'
• Undrained strength cu (φu≈0)
• Triaxial test: σ1' = σ3' tan²(45+φ/2)+2c' tan(45+φ/2)
Example: Example (GATE 2016): CU triaxial, deviator stress ≈ 104.4 kPa.
Earth Pressure
• Rankine Active: Ka = tan²(45°-φ/2)
• Rankine Passive: Kp = tan²(45°+φ/2)
• At-rest pressure: K0 = 1 - sin φ
Example: Used for retaining walls, backfill pressure calc.
Bearing Capacity
• Terzaghi: qu = c Nc + q Nq + 0.5 γ B Nγ
• Net capacity qn = qu - γ Df
• Allowable qa = qn / FOS
Example: Example: Apply Nc, Nq, Nγ from φ values.
Slope Stability
• Infinite slope (cohesionless): FS = tan φ / tan β
• General infinite slope with cohesion: FS = (c'/(γ Z sinβ cosβ)+tanφ/tanβ)
• Bishop’s simplified: FS ≈ Σ(c' li + Wi cosαi tanφ)/Σ(Wi sinαi)
Example: Example: φ=30°, β=25° → FS ≈ 1.238.