Indefinite Integration:
𝐼. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝐼𝐼. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝐼𝐼. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
* do all the integrations at once
( ) 𝑛+1
𝑛
(𝑓 𝑥 )
( ) ( )
𝐼𝑉. ∫ 𝑓′ 𝑥 × (𝑓 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 ; 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑉. ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) × 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑉𝐼. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓 (𝑥 )| + 𝐶
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑉𝐼𝐼. ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) × sin(𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
= −cos(𝑓(𝑥 )) + 𝐶
𝑉𝐼𝐼𝐼. ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) × cos(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑓(𝑥 )) + 𝐶
𝐼𝑋. ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) sec(𝑓(𝑥 )) tan(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑓(𝑥 )) + 𝐶
𝑋. ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥 ) cosec(𝑓(𝑥 )) cot(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑓(𝑥 )) + 𝐶
′( 2
𝑋𝐼. ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑓(𝑥 ))𝑑𝑥
= tan(𝑓 (𝑥 )) + 𝐶
′( 2
𝑋𝐼𝐼. ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑓(𝑥 ))𝑑𝑥
= −cot(𝑓(𝑥 )) + 𝐶
Methods
2( 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) = (1 + cos 2𝑥)
2
1. 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥 ) 2(
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = (1 − cos 2𝑥)
2
3( 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 (𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) = (3 sin(𝑥 ) − sin(3𝑥 ))
4
2.
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 (𝑥 ) 3(
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ) = (3 cos(𝑥 ) + cos(3𝑥))
4
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥)
3. Apply method 1 twice
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 (𝑥)
𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥 ) × 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 (𝑥 )
4. Apply method 1 and 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 (𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥 ) × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 (𝑥) then 6
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1
5.
𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1
6. sin A cos B
sin A sin B
Apply Product to Sum formula
cos A cos B
cos A sin B
𝒇(𝒙), 𝒈(𝒙) 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑓(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 → partial fractions → i, ii, iii, iv, v
𝑔(𝑥)
1
7. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
1
⟹ ∫( 2 2 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = tan 𝜃
𝑝𝑥+𝑞 ) +𝑟
OR
1
⟹∫ 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑖𝑣
(𝑝𝑥+𝑞)2
OR
1
⟹∫ 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
(𝑝𝑥+𝑞)2 −𝑟 2
8. ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ ∫ √(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 )2 + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥
⟹ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = tan 𝜃
OR
⟹ ∫ √(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 )2 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ ∫(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 ) 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ i, ii iii iv
OR
⟹ ∫ √(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 )2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝑟 sec 𝜃
⟹ ∫ √𝑟 2 − (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 )2 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
9. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) √𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑑𝑥
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 𝑣
𝑓(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑝𝑥+𝑞
′(
xiii. ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 ) tan(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 = ln |sec(𝑓(𝑥 ))| + 𝑐
xiv. ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) sec(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 = ln | sec(𝑓 (𝑥 )) +
tan(𝑓 (𝑥 ))| + 𝑐
∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
xv. ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) cot(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 = ln |sin(𝑓(𝑥 ))| + 𝑐
xvi. ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) cosec(𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 = −ln | cosec(𝑓 (𝑥 )) +
𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑓(𝑥 ))| + 𝑐
∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
xvii. Integration by part
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
* Formula : ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
* How to choose → 𝑒 , sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑥 2 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥, 𝑥 𝑛 , 1
Definite Integration
𝑏
∫ ′
𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏
(𝑓(𝑥 ))𝑎 = 𝑓 (𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑎
Numerical Integration
Trapezium rule
Mode → 7 (table)
start (a) → end (b)
(𝑏−𝑎)
→ step
𝑛
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑏 (𝑏 − 𝑎)
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≈ [𝑓 (𝑎) + 2(𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ . . +𝑓 (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑏)]
𝑎 𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 − 1
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Percentage error = | | × 100%
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Concave up y = f(x) → Approximation is an upper bound
is over estimated.
Increase of number of intervals decrease the value of the approximation.
Concave down y = f(x) → Approximation is a lower bound
is under estimated.
Increase of number of intervals increase the value of the approximation.
Application of integration
* 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
(upper
(right
function)
limit)
𝑏
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = ∫ (𝑓 (𝑥) −𝑔 (𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
(left
limit) (lower
function)
• Remember to add another integral whenever any of the
above parameters changes.
(2) Volume of revolution formed when 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is
rotated about the x-axis between 𝑥 = 𝑎 & 𝑥 = 𝑏 is
given by,
𝑏
2
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
(3) Parametric integration
𝑏 𝑡2 𝑑𝑥
∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑡 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
(4) Differential Equations
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑦) # any form possible
𝑑𝑥
separate x & y
1
∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
* Calculate the value of C using the boundary
condition and express the relationship between y and
x using known value of C.