Neuron

A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is the structural and fundamental unit
of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information throughout
the body. Neurons communicate using electrical and chemical signals,
enabling everything from simple reflexes to complex thoughts and actions.
The nerve cells occur in the brain, nerve cord, nerves, ganglia and
autonomic nervous system. Neuron is the largest cell in the body. It is oval
in shape or flask-shaped or star-shaped.

Parts of Neuron
Neuron has 3 parts
Cyton
Axon
Dendrons

Cyton
The part of a neuron that
looks like a cell is called
cyton or soma or
perikaryon.
It is surrounded by a thin
cell membrane called
neurilemma.
The cytoplasm of cyton
is called neuroplasm.
NISSL BODIES
They are small basophilic granules
present in the neuroplasm of neuron.
They are discovered by Nissl.
They are present in the neuroplasm of
cyton and dendrites and absent from
axon.
These granules give a tigroid (tiger-like)
spotted appearance of cyton. So they are
called tigroid substances.
They are membrane bound organelles
containing ribosomes.
They are concerned with protein synthesis
The cell cytoplasm is drawn
out into two types of
processes, namely
dendrons (dendrites) and
axon

Dendrons
Dendrites are tree-like
short branched processes
of a neuron.
They conduct the impulses
into the cyton.
They contain Nissl bodies,
mitochondria and
neurofibrils

Axon
Axon is a longer process of
neuron.
It is larger in size and less
branched.
A neuron has only one axon.
It arises from the axon hillock
of the cyton
The cytoplasm of the axon is
called axoplasm.
It is covered by a thin
membrane called axolemma.
Nissl’s granules are absent.
Apolar Neurons
They are also known as non-polar neurons.
They either have a single undifferentiated process extending from the
cell body or no identifiable processes at all.
A type of nerve cell that lacks distinct dendrites and axons.
The nerve impulse can radiate in multiple directions, rather than being
directed along a specific pathway.
Found in immature embryonic nerve cells called neuroblasts, Simpler
organisms like coelenterates (jellyfish, corals, etc.), the nerve net is
primarily composed of apolar neurons, Amacrine cells in the retina are
considered apolar neurons.
UNIPOLAR Neurons
Based on Number of Processes
A type of neuron characterized by a single process or structure i.e.,
one axon with dendrites extending from its cell body.
This single process, called a neurite.
Neurite then branches into two: one part acts as a dendrite to receive
sensory information, and the other part functions as an axon to
transmit signals.
They are commonly found in invertebrates.
Unipolar neurons are primarily found in sensory pathways,
transmitting information from the body to the central nervous
system.
BIPOLAR Neurons
Based on Number of Processes
These neurons are spindle shaped
These neurons have two structures – single axon at one end and
single dendrite at the other end, extending from the cell body.
They are specialized sensory neurons, often found in sensory
pathways for sight, smell, and hearing.
Eg: Retinal bipolar cells: These are located in the internal
nuclear layer of the retina and connect photoreceptors to other
retinal neurons.
Olfactory receptor neurons: These neurons in the nasal cavity
have bipolar structure and are involved in the sense of smell.
MULTIPOLAR Neurons
Based on Number of Processes
A type of neuron contains one axon and multiple symmetrical
dendrites extending from its cell body.
This structural arrangement allows it to receive and integrate
signals from numerous other neurons.
Multipolar neurons are the most common type of neuron in the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
Eg: Purkinje neuron of cerebellum, Motor neurons (which control
muscle movement) and interneurons (which transmit signals
within the CNS) are examples of multipolar neurons,
PSEUDOUNIPOLAR Neurons
Based on Number of Processes
These types of neurons are the first typically bipolar neuron. As
development proceeds, the cell processes converge until these meet at one
side of the cyton. Then this elongates so that a fine process is formed with a
T shaped division at the end.
A type of sensory neuron with single axon that splits into two branches. One
branch transmits information towards the central nervous system, while the
other carries it from the periphery.
Pseudounipolar neurons are primarily sensory neurons, responsible for
transmitting information about touch, pain, temperature, and
proprioception from the body's periphery to the CNS.
Eg: They are commonly found in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord
and in sensory ganglia of cranial nerves.

Sensory Neurons
Based on function of neuron
It is also known as Receptor or Afferent Neurons.
These neurons are responsible for detecting stimuli
like light, sound, touch, temperature, and taste.
They transmit information from sensory receptors or
peripheral receptors in the body (e.g., skin, eyes, ears)
to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
Eg: neurons in the eyes that detect light and neurons
in the skin that sense touch.
Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons are located in the peripheral nervous system,
which is the network of nerves outside the brain and spinal
cord.
Sensory neurons convert stimuli from the environment (like
light, sound, or touch) into electrical signals that the nervous
system can understand. This process, called sensory
transduction.

Motor Neurons
It is also known as Motoneuron or Efferent Neurons.
Motor neurons transmits signals from the central nervous
system (brain or spinal cord) to effector organs such as
muscles and glands, enabling movement and other bodily
functions.
This communication results in muscle contractions, gland
secretions, and other responses.
Plays an important role in voluntary and involuntary
actions.
For instance, motor neurons in the spinal cord send signals
to leg muscles to enable walking.
Motor Neurons
Types:
Upper motor neurons (UMNs): Transmit signals from the
brain to the spinal cord.
Lower motor neurons (or somatic motor neurons): Transmit
signals from the spinal cord to muscles.
InterNeurons
It is also known as Relay or Association or Internuncial
Neurons.
These are placed between receptor and effector nerve
cells and provide communication between them.
Interneurons are found exclusively within the central
nervous system (Brain and spinal cord), connecting
other neurons.
They act as intermediaries, connecting sensory neurons
(which carry information from the body) and motor
neurons (which carry commands to muscles and
glands).
InterNeurons
They play a crucial role in processing information,
integrating signals from sensory neurons, and coordinating
responses within the CNS.
Interneurons can be found in both the brain and spinal cord,
facilitating complex neural circuits.
Anaxonic neurons, a type of interneuron, lack a clear axon
and are involved in local signaling.
InterNeurons
Types:
Local interneurons: These have short axons and form circuits
with nearby neurons, often analyzing small pieces of
information.
Relay interneurons: These have longer axons and connect
different regions of the brain or spinal cord.
 Sensor neuron: Motor neuron:

Neurons that carries sensory A neuron that carries motor

impulse from sensory organs to impulses from the central nervous
the central nervous system are system to specific effectors is
known as sensory neurons known as motor neurons.

They are located in the dorsal They are located in the ventral
root ganglion of the spinal nerve root ganglion of the spinal cord.

A neuron that carries motor It is unipolar It is multipolar

impulses from the central nervous
system to specific effectors is Comprises of a short axon
known as motor neurons.
An adult has an average of 10
They are located in the ventral million sensory nerves in the body
root ganglion of the spinal cord.
Found in eyes, skin, ears, tongue
It is unipolar It is multipolar and nose
Comprises of a short axon
Comprises of a long axon
An adult has an average of 10
million sensory nerves in the body Half million of motor neurons are
found in the body
Found in eyes, skin, ears, tongue
and nos Found in muscles and glands

Based on Histology of neuron:

Myelinated Neuron
It is also known as Medullated neurons.
Myelinated neurons are nerve cells where the axon, the
long extension of the neuron, is insulated by a myelin
sheath. This sheath, composed of lipids and proteins,
significantly increases the speed and efficiency of electrical
signal transmission.
The myelin sheath is not continuous; it's interrupted by
gaps called nodes of Ranvier.
It is white in colour and hence called white neuron. It make
up the white matter of the brain and spinal cord.

Myelinated Neuron
Myelinated neuron allows faster impulse transmission dur to the following reasons:
1. Insulation: The myelin sheath acts as an insulator and prevents electrical current
from leaking out of the axon.
2. Nodes of Ranvier: The exposed nodes of Ranvier contain ion channels that
allow sodium and potassium ions to flow in and out, regenerating the electrical
signal.
3. Saltatory Conduction: The signal essentially "jumps" from node to node,
significantly speeding up the transmission process.

Non-Myelinated Neuron
It is also known as Non-medullated neurons.
This neuron does not contain a medullary or myelin sheath
on the axon and it remains naked.
The absence of myelin sheath leads to slower nerve impulse
conduction compared to myelinated neurons.
It is grey in colour and hence called grey neuron.

Non-Myelinated Neuron
Non-myelinated neurons are prevalent in the autonomic nervous system, which
controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing including
smooth muscle contraction and gland secretion.
Some thermoreceptors (involved in detecting temperature changes) and nociceptors
(involved in detecting pain) are non-myelinated neurons.

Based on Chemical substances released by neuron:

Adrenergic Neuron
Key Characteristics:
Adrenergic neurons release a hormone-like substance
called sympathin during impulse conduction.
Sympathin is similar adrenalin. Hence, these neurons are
called adrenergic.
This type of neuron that primarily use norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) as their neurotransmitter.
Eg: Sympathetic nerves

Adrenergic Neuron
They are a key component of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible
for regulating the body's "fight-or-flight" response. These neurons release
norepinephrine at synapses, junctions with other nerve cells or target tissues like
smooth muscle or glands.
They play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including heart rate,
blood pressure, and smooth muscle contraction, particularly during stress or
physical activity.
CHOLInergic Neuron
Key Characteristics:
These neurons produce acetyl choline during impulse
conduction. Hence, these neurons are called cholinergic.
They play a crucial role in central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) influencing various brain functions like
learning, memory, and attention, as well as in the
peripheral nervous system, influencing muscle movement
and glandular secretions.
Eg: Parasympathetic nerves and sympathetic nerves of
sweat glands and uterus.

Functions of the Neurons

Nerve cells receive and transmit

information in the form of electrical
signals throughout the body. This
allows communication within the
nervous system which is vital for
different body functions.
Motor neuron receive signals from the brain and transmit these signals
to muscles. They control muscle
movements and allow voluntary
movements like walking and
running.
Interneurons act as mediators and
transmit signals between other
neurons.
Sensory neurons receive stimuli from
the external environment. These
nerve cells detect changes in the
surroundings and transmit these
signals to the central nervous system.
This allows us to respond to our surroundings
Nerve cells are also involved in
maintaining the concentrations of
ions inside and outside their
membranes which is important for
generating and transmitting nerve
impulses.