CHAPTERS

Research Methods
Experiments
• An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which

an independent variable (IV) is manipulated and is expected to be

responsible for changes in the dependent variable (DV).

• There are three types of experiments:

o Laboratory experiments: A research method in which there is an IV,

DV, and strict controls. This looks for a causal relationship and is

conducted in a setting which is not the usual environment for the

participant with regard to the behaviour they are performing.

o Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which is the normal

environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are

performing. The researcher has control over a few variables, but it

difficult to control all variables.

o Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a causal relationship

in which the IV cannot be directly manipulated by the experimenter.

Instead, they study the effect of an existing difference or change. This

 is not a true experiment as the experimenter cannot manipulate the

levels of the IV.

• Laboratory experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

High levels of standardization hence it can be Artificial Environment hence

replicated easily to test for reliability it lacks ecological validity

High levels of control hence researches can be

Participants may show
more confident that the IV is directly affecting
demand characteristics
the DV

• Field experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

Situational variables are difficult to

Realistic setting hence high
control so it is tough know if the IV is
ecological validity
affecting the DV

Limited demand characteristics so Issues in breaking ethics since the

behaviour is more likely to be participants do not know that they’re
natural and valid taking part in a study

• Natural experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

High ecological validity because the Difficult to know whether the IV caused
IV is naturally occurring an effect on the DV
 Strengths Weaknesses

Valid representation of a person’s Difficult to replicate to test for reliability

behaviour as the event is naturally occurring

• Each experiment consists of an experimental and control condition.

• An experimental condition is one or more of the situations in an experiment

which represent the different levels of the IV and are compared, either with

one another or with the control condition.

• A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent. This is compared

to the experimental condition(s).

Self-Reports
• Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires and interviews.

• Questionnaires are a research method that involves asking questions, mainly

written, to gain information from the participants.

• There are four types of questionnaires:

o Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant likes or dislikes

something.

o Rating scales: questions that require the participant to represent their

answer on the numerical scale provided to them.

o Open questions: questions which allow the participant to give detailed

answers without any restrictions.

 o Closed questions: questions which allow the participant to respond

using a few, stated responses without the opportunity to expand on

their answers.

• Interviews are a research method using verbal questions asked directly to

the participants.

• There are three types of interviews:

o Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order which may be

scripted. Consistency might also be required in the interviewer’s

posture, voice, etc., and hence these are highly standardized.

o Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of questions, however,

the interviewer could add more questions if required to clarify or get

details on any previous answers.

o Unstructured: an interview in which most questions depend on the

respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be provided that need to be

covered for the interview.

o Strengths Weaknesses

Participants are more likely to

Participants may give
give truthful answers as it does
Questionnaires socially desirable
not involve talking to someone
answers
face to face
 o Strengths Weaknesses

A large sample can answer the Too many closed

questionnaire in a short time questions may force an
span which should increase the answer that does not
representativeness and reflect the participant’s
generalizability of the findings opinion

Participants may be less

Lots of open questions will
likely to give truthful
make participants reveal
answers as they are face
Interviews reasons as to why they behave
to face with the
in a particular way or have a
interviewer or because
particular opinion
of social- desirability

Case Studies
• A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a person, family or

institute, that produced in-depth data specific to that instance.

Strengths Weaknesses

As researchers are focused on

As the research is focused on one person,
one individual, they can collect
the case is unique which makes
rich, in-depth data which adds
generalisations difficult
validity to the findings

Attachments may be formed between

High ecological validity as researcher and participant which may
participants are studied in reduce objectivity of data collected and
their everyday lives analysis of it. This could reduce the validity of
the findings.
Observations
• A research method that involves watching human or animal behaviour.

• An observer can be overt/covert or they can be participant/non-participant

observers.

• Overt observers are when the participants know who the researcher is and

that they are being observed. A covert observer could be present in the

group of participants observing them but they do not know who it is.

• A participant observer is one who watches from the perspective of being part

of the social setting of the participants. A non-participant observer does not

become involved in the situation being studied.

• An observation can be structured/unstructured or naturalistic/controlled.

• A structured observation is a study in which the observer records only a

limited range of behaviours. An unstructured observation is one in which the

observer records a range of behaviours, which is usually confined to a pilot

study to refine the behavioural categories.

• A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by watching the participants’

behaviour in their normal environment without interference from the

researcher in either social or physical environment. A controlled observation

is one which is conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in a

 situation in which the social or physical environment has been manipulated

by the researcher.

• General:

Strengths Weaknesses

If participants are unaware If the participants are aware of the

of the observation taking observation, they may not act ‘naturally’ but
place - increases ecological show more socially desirable behaviour. This
validity can reduce the validity of the findings

As behaviours are ‘counted’, It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is

data can be analysed naturalistic as many variables cannot be
statistically with minimal bias controlled which reduces the reliability

• Participant observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

High ecological validity as the participants There are ethical problems of

are observed in a real-life setting informed consent

As the observers become involved with

The presence of an outsider can
the group, they are more likely to
change the behaviours of the
understand the motives and reasons for
group members. This lowers the
behaviours which increases the validity of
validity of the findings
the findings

• Non-participant observation:
 Strengths Weaknesses

It can be difficult to make detailed

Participants behaviour will not be
observations and to produce qualitative
affected by observation because
data that allows understandings as to why
the observer is out of sight
the behaviours are occurring

Researchers’ observations are

more likely to be objective as they
are detaching from the people
they are observing

• Structured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

The behavioural checklist allows The sampling of observed behaviour

objective quantitative data to be tends to be restricted and does not give
collected which can then be an idea of the reasons as to why the
analysed statistically behaviours are occurring

• Unstructured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

They can generate in-depth, rich

Observers may easily be drawn to eye
quantitative data that can help
catching behaviours and hence may not
explain why behaviours are
fully represent all the behaviours
occurring

• Naturalistic observation:
 Strengths Weaknesses

As participants are unaware that they Very little control over extraneous
are being watched, they should behave variables which makes it difficult to
more naturally, removing the chances of draw a cause and effect
demand characteristics relationship

Replication may be difficult as there

High ecological validity as the
cannot be a totally standardised
observation takes place in a natural
procedure, hence making it difficult
setting
to test for reliability

• Controlled observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

As the set-up is controlled, the observers can An artificial situation can easily
be more confident about what is causing the influence participants’
behaviours behaviour

Less chance of extraneous variables Low ecological validity as the

affecting participants’ behaviour setting is artificial

Correlations
• A research method which looks for a causal relationship between two

measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a change in the

other, although, the changes cannot be assumed to be causal. None of the

variables are manipulated, they are only measured.

• A positive correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one variable

accompanies an increase in the other.

 • A negative correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one variable

accompanies a decrease in the other.

• No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite trend occurs and the

two mentioned variables do not appear to be related to each other.

Strengths Weaknesses

The researchers easily

Issues of causality because there could be a
establish a cause and effect
third variable affecting the changes
relationship

Correlations do not require

Correlations are restricted to research that
any manipulation so can be
are quantitative and so they cannot be used
used where experiments are
to measure why behaviours are occurring
unethical or impractical

Hypotheses and Aims

• An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is generally expressed in

terms of what the study intends to show. It is written before the experiment

is carried out and does not predict the outcomes.

• A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a difference between levels of

the IV in an experiment or a relationship between variables in a correlation.

• An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which predicts the

difference or relationship between the variables in a particular investigation.

• There are three types of hypothesis.

 o A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting the

direction of a relationship between variables.

o A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting only

that one variable will be related to the other, not the direction of the

relationship.

o A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that any difference or

correlation in the results is due to chance.

Variables
• Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in an experiment

which is manipulated to create two or more conditions and is expected to be

responsible for changes in the DV.

• Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment which is measured and

is expected to change under the influence of the IV.

• Operationalization is the definition of variables so that they can be accurately

manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated.

Experimental Design
• This is the way in which participants are allocated to the different levels of

the IV.
 • An independent measures design is an experimental design in which a

different group of participants is used for each IV level. If the IV is naturally

occurring, the researcher must use it.

• A repeated measures design is an experimental design in which

participants perform at every IV level. It cannot be used if the IV is naturally

occurring. It also uses counterbalancing (ABBA design).

• A matched pairs design is an experimental design in which participants are

arranged in pairs. Each pair is similar in important ways to the study, and one

member performs at a different level of the IV.

• Independent measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses

As participants take art on only one

There may be participant
condition, they are less likely to guess the
variables affecting the DV
aim of the study, hence reducing the effects
rather than the IV
of demand characteristics

More participants are required

There are no order effects that can reduce for this type of design as
the validity of the findings compared to repeated
measures

• Repeated measures design:

 Strengths Weaknesses

Eliminates any participant There is a chance of demand characteristics

variables as all of them take as participants may work out the aim or
part in all conditions change their behaviour.

Fewer participants are Order effects can affect the findings of the
needed as compared to study and reduce its validity. This could be
independent measures overcome using counterbalancing.

• Matched pairs design:

Strengths Weaknesses

Matching participants as
closely as possible on
measurable traits may help Trying to match participants’ similar traits is
control for individual very time-consuming.
differences affecting the
results.

Trying to match people exactly is impossible as

This design is better suited
there will always be individual differences from
when a repeated measures
one person to another. Therefore, the study
design may not work due to
may lack internal validity if these differences
an order effect that may
affect the IV rather than the experimental
affect results.
condition.

The sample may be smaller as trying to find a

large sample of people matching similar traits
may be difficult. This may mean the findings
may lack external validity.
Controlling of Variables
• It is essential to control variables to be certain about the findings of a study.

• An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts randomly, affecting the

DV in all levels of the IV, or systematically, affecting only one level of the IV

(called a confounding variable), so can obscure the effect of the IV, making

the results difficult to interpret.

• A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by an aspect of the

environment.

• Participant variables are another confounding variable caused by the

individual differences of participants.

• Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous variables constant. These

are required to ensure that the results of the study are reliable.

Types of Data
• There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.

• Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the quality of a

psychological characteristic.

Strengths Weaknesses

Interpretation of data could be

In-depth, detailed accounts given in the subjective as these are words
words of participants are collected. It can rather than numbers
 Strengths Weaknesses

be argued that using qualitative data is not

reductionist

As the data comes directly from the There may be researcher bias -
participant, we can understand why the the researcher may only select
participant thinks, feels or acts in a data that fits into the hypothesis
particular way or aim of the study

• Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity of a psychological

measure.

Strengths Weaknesses

As the data are numerical, it allows As the data are numerical, they miss
easier comparison and statistical out on why participants chose the
analysis to take place. answers that they did

Using quantitative data can be seen

Numerical data are objective and
as reductionist as it involves
scientific, so there is a minimal chance
researchers reducing complex ideas
of psychologists miscalculating the
and behaviours to a number or
data and drawing invalid conclusions.
percentage.

Sampling of Participants
• A population is a group sharing one or more characteristics from which a

sample is drawn.

• A sample is a group of people selected to represent the population in a

study.
 • The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the participants for a

study from the population. There are three types of sampling techniques.

o Opportunity sampling is when the participants are chosen because

they are available at the time and place where the research is taking

place.

o Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when participants are invited to

participate in studies via advertisements or emails.

o Random sampling is when all population members are allocated

numbers, and a fixed amount of these are chosen unbiasedly, for

example, by picking out numbers from a hat.

o Strengths Weaknesses

Large numbers of
Researchers are unlikely to
participants can be obtained
gain a wide variety of
Opportunity relatively quickly and easily
Sampling participants to allow for
because researchers use
generalisation
people who are around

Participants are more likely to Researchers are unlikely to

participate if they have gain a wide variety of
already volunteered so the participants to allow for
Volunteer
Sampling drop-out rate should be generalisation because
lower, making generalisations participants will only be of a
stronger certain type
 o Strengths Weaknesses

Obtaining details of the TP

Researchers can generalise to use to draw the sample
the target population (TP) may be difficult - a
with more confidence representative sample

Random cannot be guaranteed

Sampling
Researchers may gain a
‘perfect sample’ but still
have the problem that
participants will not take

Validity
• Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be

testing.

• Internal validity is how well an experiment controls confounding variables.

This allows the researcher to be more confident about the causal

relationship.

• Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one situation would

generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation

represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real

life.

• Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents the real-world

situation.
 • Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a measure appears to

test what it claims to.

• Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a measure that has

previously been validated.

• Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a study apply to

other settings and populations.

• Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that give away the

aims. This could cause participants to change their behaviour and hence

reduce the validity of the study.

• Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s

feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between different

researchers. This would increase the validity of the study.

• Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s feelings,

beliefs or experiences and may differ between researchers. Since this is not

consistent, it may reduce the validity of the study.

Reliability
• This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent.

• Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are standardised so that

each participant experiences the same thing.

 • External reliability is the extent to which the results of a procedure can be

replicated from one time to another, gaining consistent results.

• Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two

researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same records

from the same raw data.

• There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the split-half method

and the test-retest method.

• The split-half method involves the results of the first half of the

questionnaire or interview to be the same as the results of second half when

the questions are the same in both halves but presented in different a

manner.

• The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency of a test or task

by using it twice and then comparing the results of each time to check how

similar they are.

Data Analysis
• Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to determine the

typical or average score from a data set. This includes the mean, median and

mode.
• Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and dividing them by

the number of scores in the data set.

• Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked in order

(ascending order).

• Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.

• Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or spread

within a data set. This includes the range and the standard deviation.

• The range is between the most significant and negligible values with an

addition 1.

• Standard deviation calculates the average difference between each score and

the data set's mean.

• The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical variable about

the mean, median and mode. It forms a bell-shaped curve and is

symmetrical.

• Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories and total or

average scores. There are gaps between the columns as the data is not

related linearly.

• A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.

• A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational analysis.

Ethical Guidelines
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