Chemistry Midterm Study Guide
April 2024
Hydrogen bonding is when hydrogen atoms from one molecule are attracted to a lone pair from
another molecule. Surface tension is the inward pull or force that minimises surface area of a
liquid. A surfactant lowers the surface tension of a liquid by interfering with hydrogen bonding.
Aqueous solutions are solutions of water with dissolved substances. The substance doing the
dissolving is the solvent. The substance being dissolved is the solute. Solvation is when ions in
water are surrounded by water molecules. Electrolytes are compounds that conduct electricity
when in solution or melted. A nonelectrolyte is a substance that does not conduct electricity
when in solution or melted. Strong electrolytes are substances that completely dissolve in
solution. Weak electrolytes are substances that do not completely dissolve in solution. Hydrates
are substances that contain water as part of the crystal structure or solid structure. Anhydrous
means the substance does not contain any water. Efflorescence is when a hydrate loses its water.
Hygroscopic compounds are hydrates that can remove water from the air. Deliquescence is when
a hygroscopic compound removes enough water to become a solution.
Practise the sample problems on page 500.
Suspensions are mixtures where the particles settle over time. Colloids are special
heterogeneous mixtures that have properties in between suspensions and solutions. The Tyndall
effect is the scattering of light seen in heterogeneous mixtures. Brownian motion is the random
movement of colloidal particles. Emulsions are special solutions of a liquid in another liquid.
Agitation, temperature, and particle size all effect the rate of dissolving solutes. Saturated
solutions contain the maximum amount of a particular solute for the solvent at a certain
temperature and pressure. Solubility is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of
solvent. Unsaturated solutions do not contain the maximum amount of solute. Miscible liquids
are those that easily mix together. Immiscible liquids are those that do not easily mix together.
Supersaturated solutions are those that have been saturated at a higher temperature and then
lowered temperature so that it contains more solute than it should be able to hold. Henry’s law
tells us at a given temperature, the solubility is directly proportional to the pressure.
Practise the sample problems on page 524
Concentration is the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent. Dilute solutions are
relatively lower concentration solutions. Concentrated solutions are relatively higher
concentration solutions. Molarity (M) is the measure of moles of solute in litres of solution.
Practise the sample problems on pages 526, 527, 529, 530, and 531
Colligative properties are those that only depend on the number of solute particles not the
identity of the particles. Freezing-point depression is the lowering of the freezing point when
solute is added to a solvent. Boiling-point elevation is the raising of the boiling point when solute
is added to a solvent.
Molality (m) is the measure of moles of solute in kilograms of solvent. Mole fractions are the
fraction of moles of solute or solvent compared to the total moles. The freezing-point depression
Chemistry Midterm Study Guide
April 2024
constant (Kf) is equal to the change in freezing point for a 1-molal solution. The boiling-point
elevation constant (Kb) is equal to the change in boiling point for a 1-molal solution.
Practise the sample problems on pages 539, 541, 543, and 544
Thermochemistry is the study of the energy changes of chemical reactions or state changes.
Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in chemical bonds. Heat (q) is the energy that
moves between substances. The thermochemistry system is the part of the universe we are
measuring or observing. The thermochemistry surroundings are the parts of the universe that
are not the system. The law of the conservation of energy says that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. Endothermic processes are those where the system absorbs energy from the
surroundings. Exothermic processes are those where the system gives energy to the
surroundings. The joule (J) is the amount of heat that raises 1g of water by 0.239°C. Heat
capacity (c) is the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of an object by 1°C.
Specific heat (C) is the amount of heat it takes to raise 1g of an object by 1°C.
Practise the sample problem on page 561
Calorimetry is the process of measuring the heat gained or lost by a system. A
calorimeter is the device that measures the heat gained or lost by a system.
Enthalpy (H) is the heat flow of a system. A thermochemistry equation is a
balanced chemical equation that included the heat lost or gained by the system.
The heat of reaction is the heat gained or lost by the system during a chemical
reaction. Heat of combustion is the heat lost by the system during a combustion
reaction.
Practise the sample problems on pages 564 and 567
The heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the heat absorbed by 1 mole of a substance as it
melts at the melting point. The heat of solidification (ΔH solid) is the heat lost by 1
mole of a substance as it solidifies at the freezing point. The heat of vaporisation
(ΔHvap) is the heat absorbed by 1 mole of a substance as it boils at the boiling
point. The heat of condensation (ΔHcond) is the heat lost by 1 mole of a substance
as it condenses at the condensation point. The heat of solution (ΔH soln) is the
enthalpy change caused by the dissolution of 1 mole of a substance.
Practise the sample problems on pages 570, 573, and 575
Hess’s law tells us that the total enthalpy change for a reaction only depends on
the starting and ending points, so we can add partial thermochemical equations
to reach the reaction we are trying to measure. The standard heat of formation
(ΔHf) is the enthalpy change it takes to form 1 mole of a compound.
Practise the sample problem on page 581
A rate is the amount of change of something in a given amount of time. Collision
theory says that reactions can occur as atoms, ions, or molecules smash into
each other. The activation energy (Ea) is the amount of energy needed to form an
activation complex, the unstable complex in between reactants and products;
activation energy is seen as the energy needed for the reaction to occur.
Chemistry Midterm Study Guide
April 2024
Temperature, concentration, particle size, and catalysts can all affect the reaction
rates.
A rate law is the expression for the rate of a reaction in concentrations of
reactants. The specific rate constant (k) is the proportionality constant for the
rate based on the concentrations and reaction conditions. Reaction order is the
amount of direct change the concentration has on the rate of a reaction. A first-
order reaction is when the reaction rate is directly proportional to one reactant.
Higher-order reactions are when the reaction rate is proportional to more than
one reactant. Elementary reactions are reactions in which reactants are
converted to products in a single step. A reaction mechanism is the series of
steps or elementary reactions that are needed to go from the reactants to the
products. An intermediate is a substance that is somewhat stable formed in
between reaction steps. The rate-determining step of a reaction is the step or
elementary reaction that limits the reaction rate more than the other steps.
Practise the sample problem on page 606
A reversible reaction is a reaction that can occur from reactants to products and
can also occur from products to reactants. Chemical equilibrium is when the
forwards and backwards reactions of a reversible reaction are occurring at the
same rates. The equilibrium position describes the relative concentrations of the
reactants to the products at equilibrium. Le Châtelier’s principle tells us that
when stress is applied to a system in equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to release
the stress. Concentration changes shift an equilibrium in a direction to equalise
the concentrations; this depends on whether a reactant or product changes.
Temperature changes shift an equilibrium in a direction that depends on the
energy change in the reaction. Pressure changes shift an equilibrium in a
direction that depends on the amount of gas exists in both directions. The
equilibrium constant (Keq) is the ratio of the product of the products raised to
their coefficients to the product of the reactants raised to their coefficients.
Practise the sample problems on pages 615, 617, 618, and 619
The solubility product constant (Ksp) is the product of the ion concentrations
raised to their coefficients. A common ion is an ion found in more than one
compound in a solution. The common ion effect is the lowering of a solubility of a
compound dur to the addition of a common ion.
Practise the sample problems on pages 623 and 625
Free energy is the amount of energy available to be used by a system.
Spontaneous reactions are those that occur naturally without outside help.
Nonspontaneous reactions are those that do not occur naturally without outside
help. Entropy (S) is the measure of disorder in a system. The law of disorder tells
us that all systems in the universe tend toward increased disorder. Gibbs free
energy (G) is the measure that related the enthalpy, temperature, and entropy
together. A positive change in Gibbs free energy correlates to a nonspontaneous
reaction. A negative change in Gibbs free energy correlates to a spontaneous
reaction.
Chemistry Midterm Study Guide
April 2024
Arrhenius theory of acids and bases relates acids and bases to the ions formed
by the self-ionisation of water. Self-ionisation is when a compound can ionise
itself. Arrhenius acids are compounds that increase the hydrogen ion (H +)
concentration in water. Arrhenius bases are compounds that increase the
hydroxide ion (OH-) concentration in water. Hydrogen ions in water tend to exist
as hydronium ions (H3O+). Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases relates acids
and bases to the ability to donate or accept a hydrogen ion. Brønsted-Lowry acids
are compounds that can donate hydrogen ions. Brønsted-Lowry bases are
compounds that can accept hydrogen ions. Conjugate acids are compounds that
have gained hydrogen ions. Conjugate bases are compounds that have lost
hydrogen ions. Lewis theory of acids and bases relates acids and bases to the
ability to accept or donate a lone pair of electrons. Lewis acids are compounds
that can accept a lone pair of electrons. Lewis bases are compounds that can
donate a lone pair of electrons.
Practise the sample problem on page 652
The ion-product constant for water (Kw) is the product of the concentration of
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions. The ion-product constant
for water is always 1.0 x 10-14. Since the ions in water are formed equally, in pure
water, the concentrations of both hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are 1.0 x 10 -7
M. Aqueous solutions are those in which the hydrogen ion concentration equals
1.0 x 10-7 M. Acidic solution are those in which the hydrogen ion concentration is
more than 1.0 x 10-7 M. Basic solutions or alkaline solutions are those in which
the hydrogen ion concentration is less than 1.0 x 10 -7 M. pH is a simpler way of
measuring the acidity or basicity of a solution; it is equal to the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.
Practise the sample problems on pages 655, 657, 658, and 659
Strong acids are acids that completely dissolve in solution. Weak acids are acids
that do not completely dissolve in solution. The acid dissolution constant (K a) is
the ratio of the ion concentrations to the concentration of the leftover acid.
Strong bases are bases that completely dissolve in solution. Weak bases are
bases that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions slightly in solution. The
base dissolution constant (Kb) is the ratio of the ion concentrations to the
concentration of the leftover base.
Practise the sample problem on page 667
Neutralisation occurs when all the acid and base in a solution have been
converted to water and salt. Neutralisation reactions are when acids and bases
combine to create salts and water. Titration is the process of using a known
concentration solution to determine the concentration of unknown concentration
solution. This is done in a burette or pipette by drops. The equivalence point is
the point during titration when neutralisation begins. The end point is the point
during titration when neutralisation is complete.
Practise the sample problems on pages 673 and 675
Chemistry Midterm Study Guide
April 2024
Salt hydrolysis is when ions from a salt make a solution slightly acidic or slightly
basic. Buffers are solutions that can keep a constant pH when small amounts of
acid or base are added.
Practise the sample problem on page 680
Oxidation is the loss of electrons or gain of oxygen atoms. Reduction is the gain
of electrons or loss of oxygen atoms. Oxidation-reduction reactions are reactions
that include processes of oxidation and reduction; these are also called redox
reactions. A reducing agent is a substance that loses electrons. An oxidizing
agent is a substance that gains electrons.
Practise the sample problem on page 695
The oxidation number is the positive or negative number on an atom that
denotes the amount of oxidation. The rules for assigning oxidation numbers are
on page 702.
Practise the sample problems on pages 703, 705, and 706
The oxidation-number-change method helps balance a redox reaction by
comparing the increases and decreases in oxidation numbers. A half-reaction is
an equation that just shows the oxidation or the reduction that takes place in a
redox reaction. This method helps balance a redox reaction by balancing the half-
reactions separately before adding them.
Practise the sample problems on pages 709, 711, 714, and 715