Chapter two

Literature review

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the existing literature related to the use of

Cuisenaire rods as a teaching tool to assist students in understanding and performing subtraction

of fractions with different denominators. The chapter begins with an overview of the challenges

faced by learners in subtracting proper fractions with different denominators. It then explores the

extent to which the use of Cuisenaire rods has helped in addressing these challenges. Finally,

recommendations are provided for educators on utilizing Cuisenaire rods effectively in teaching

the subtraction of fractions with different denominators.

What are the challenges that learners face in demonstrating an understanding of

subtracting proper fractions with different denominators?

Subtracting proper fractions with different denominators can be a challenging task for many

learners. According to Smith and Johnson (2011), learners often struggle with understanding the

concept of finding a common denominator and performing the necessary operations. This

difficulty is further compounded when the fractions involved have different denominators.

Studies by Jones (2014) highlight the importance of conceptual understanding in fraction

subtraction. Learners who lack a deep understanding of the concept struggle to apply appropriate

strategies when subtracting fractions with different denominators. This lack of conceptual

knowledge depicts difficulty in determining common denominators.

Fraction subtraction often involves multiple steps and procedures, making learners prone to

procedural errors. Research by Brown and Miller (2018) suggests that learners struggle with

accurately subtracting fractions due to errors in cross-multiplication, aligning numerators and

denominators, and simplifying the resulting fraction. These procedural errors significantly

impact a learner’s ability to subtract fractions effectively.

Repeated and varied practice is crucial for learners to master fraction subtraction. According to a

study conducted by Patel and Williams (2015), learners encounter difficulties in subtracting

proper fractions with different denominators due to a lack of sufficient practice opportunities.

Limited practice can hinder mastery in applying subtraction strategies and impede learners’

overall proficiency in this skill.

To what extent has the use of Cuisenaire rods helped to improve the learner’s performance

on subtracting proper fractions with different denominators?

Research by Anderson and Thompson. (2012) suggests that the use of Cuisenaire rods provides

learners with an enhanced visual representation of fraction subtraction. By manipulating the rods,

learners can physically observe the process of subtracting fractions with different denominators.

This visual representation can help learners develop a deeper conceptual understanding of the

subtraction process, leading to improved performance.

Several studies have proposed that Cuisenaire rods facilitate the concrete-to-abstract transition in

fraction subtraction. According to Williams (2014), learners initially engage with the rods as

concrete manipulative, allowing them to explore and manipulate fractions. As learners become

more proficient, they transition to abstract representations, eventually using only numerical
expressions. This progression can lead to improved performance by gradually building learners’

understanding of fraction subtraction.

Studies by Brown and Jones (2018) highlight the use of Cuisenaire rods as effective tools for

promoting a deeper conceptual understanding of fraction subtraction. By physically manipulating

the rods, learners can explore different fraction relationships, such as finding common

denominators and identifying equivalent fractions. This hands-on approach fosters a more

thorough understanding of the subtraction process, leading to improved performance.

Cuisenaire rods allow for individualized learning experiences, catering to learners’ diverse needs

and abilities. Research by Smith and Davis (2013) found that learners who utilized Cuisenaire

rods during fraction subtraction activities were able to progress at their own pace. This

individualized approach facilitated a more personalized learning experience and contributed to

improved performance.

In what way, would Cuisinairerod strategy affects remediation error of subtracting

proper fractions with different denominators?

Traditionally, cuisinairerod strategy affects remediation errors ofsubtracting proper fractions

with different denominators , which refers to students’ overgeneralization of wholenumber

knowledge to fractions DeWolf & Vosniadou(2015).

Students assimilate wholenumber concepts into understanding subtracting proper [Link]

Cuisenaire rod strategy can positively impact the remediation error of subtracting proper

fractions with different denominators by providing a visual and tactile aid for understanding the

concept of fractions and their relationships. By physically manipulating the rods to represent the
fractions, students can better grasp the concept of finding common denominators and performing

subtraction [Link], here are four ways the Cuisenaire rod strategy can affect the

remediation error of subtracting proper fractions with different denominators:

Cuisenaire rods provide a visual representation of fractions, making it easier for students to

understand the concept of subtracting fractions with different denominators. Seeing the rods as

parts of a whole can help students grasp the relationship between the fractions and the

subtraction process.

The hands-on manipulation of Cuisenaire rods allows students to physically move and arrange

the rods to represent the fractions they are subtracting. This tactile experience helps solidify their

understanding of the mathematical operations involved and reduces the likelihood of making

errors.

By using Cuisenaire rods, students can develop a deeper conceptual understanding of fractions

and their relationships. They can see how fractions with different denominators can be

transformed into equivalent fractions with common denominators, which is crucial for

subtracting fractions accurately.

When students use Cuisenaire rods, any errors they make in subtracting fractions become more

apparent. They can visually compare the lengths of the rods representing the fractions to check if

their subtraction result makes sense in relation to the original fractions. This process helps them

identify and correct errors more effectively during remediation.

 Chapter Three

Methodology

Research Design

Several research designs are characterized by their nature of conduct, how they contribute as

well as their purposes and methods. However, the research design used for this study was action

research design. Action research was used to find the causes of the pupils' problems in the

Subtraction of fractions with different denominators and develop possible strategies to solve the

identified problem among Batabi Presby Primary basic six pupils.

Population

The total population of the school is four hundred and four (404).

Target Population

The target population for this research work was the basic six pupils of Batabi Presby Primary

who are twenty-five (25) in total.

Accessible Population

The accessible Population for this research work was twenty (22). This is because the other three

students were absent from school and could not partake in the work.
Sample and Sampling Technique

An experimental group sampling method for the research work.

Experimental group sampling consists of ten (10) pupils of the basic six class. My rationale for

selecting the experimental group sampling method was to use them to implement the

intervention before helping the whole class of basic six pupils at Batabi Presby Primary.

Data collection instruments

This action research was conducted mainly through observation and teacher-made tests. These

research instruments were used to solicit information from various angles for the research work

to be successful.

Observation

The observation method of collecting data was used because it provides information where other

methods like interviews and questionnaires are not effective, and this was done among ten pupils

of Batabi Presby Primary. Again, observation can offer data when respondents are unwilling to

cooperate or offer information. An observation was undertaken during the out-program when my

mentor was delivering the concept of subtraction of fractions with different denominators. This

observation covered a week.

Test

A test was conducted to collect the baseline data of the pre-test and post-test analyses. It also

helps the learner apprehend the difference in using the Cuisenaire rod in solving the same

question.
Pre-intervention stage

The problem of subtraction of fractions with different denominators as a concept in Mathematics

was identified with the help of some research tools like observation and tests. The observation

was done within the period of our out program when my mentor was teaching the concept of

subtraction of proper fractions.

A test was also conducted to collect the baseline data for the research work.

Pre-test questions used are:

2 1 5 3 5 2 5 1
1. - 2. - 3. 1 - 4. 7 - 5. -
5 10 12 8 8 5 6 8

Fractions were taken from Basic 6 Primary Mathematics. (Okyere, 2021)

Intervention Stage

After identifying the problem of subtracting fractions with different denominators as a concept in

Mathematics faced by the pupils, the mathematics periods in the week were used to provide an

intensive intervention to the problem.

An acronym and a rhyme to help pupils remember the colours of all the rods from 1 to 10,

respectively. This is the acronym WRLPYDBBBO. However, the rhyme is "Wisdom Requires

Lifelong Pursuit; Your Desire Brings Best and Boundless Opportunities." With the rhyme, the

first letters of the words respectively will help the pupils to remember the ten colours of the

Cuisenaire rods, respectively. The pupils were taken through how to use the rods. To use the

rods, choose any rod or set of rods to represent the whole depending on the fractions given in the

question. If the fraction has the same denominators, it can be solved as a straightforward

subtraction. Thus, the value of the denomination is chosen as a whole, and the rods representing
the values of the numerator are chosen and subtracted and then compared with the original

whole. For fractions with different denominators, choose a rod or set of rods that will be equal to

the LCM of the two denominators, then you represent the numerators with a rod or set of rods

and then tell the difference by comparing the number of spaces between the rods represented.

Activity one

Solving subtraction of proper fractions with the same denominator using Cuisenaire rods. E.g.

3 2
-
6 6

Steps involved

Choose a rod to represent the original whole.

Since the denominators are the same the whole will be dark green representing six (6)

Add another six-white set of rods to the whole to help in comparing.

w w w w w w

Dark green
Take the rod that represents the numerator 3 and that rod is light green.

Light green Light green Light green

Take the rod that represents the numerator 2 and that rod is red.

red red
Compare the whole that is dark green rod side by side with the other rods in length. You

will identify that 2 of the rods are equivalent to the whole.

 Check how many white rods have the same length as 1 light green rod. You identify

those 3 white rods are equivalent to 1 light green rod.

Dark green
w w w w w w

Red Red Red

Light green Light green

3
Therefore, from the above 1 light green rod represents
6

Using the same procedure, we arrange the rods for the second fraction to be subtracted.

We look for the rod that represents 2 and that rod is red.

We carefully arranged them a realized that three red rods are equivalent to the whole.

Guide learners to identify the number of white rods that will be equivalent to 1 red rod. Pupils

realized that 2 white rods are equivalent to 1 red rod.

In subtracting we compare the rods comparing each of the fractions overall.

Dark green

w w w w w w

Red Red

Light green

We realize that when you compare the rods that represent the various fractions, we can see that

the difference between the two is 1 white rod.

 3 2 1
Hence, we can tell that ─ =
6 6 6
Key

W represents White

Example 2

2 1
-
3 2

Step one

Choose a rod that represents both denominators by arranging red rods and light green rods to

the same length

Light green Light green

Red Red Red

We realize that 2 light green and 3 red rods make a length of the same.

Using white rods, we arrange to see the number of white rods that make equal lengths.

Light green Light green

Red Red Red

w w w w w w
We can see that 6 white rods are equal in length. Also, we know that 6 is represented by a dark

green rod.

1 2 1
Each red rod is which is also equivalent to and each light green is which is equivalent to
3 6 2

3
6

Dark green

w w w w w w

Red Red

Light green
Comparing the 2 red rods and 1 green rods, we can see that there is a difference of 1 white rod

which separates the two rods and makes them to be of the same length.

2 1 1
─ =
3 2 6

2 1 4−3 1
Algorithm = – = =
3 2 6 6

Example three

3 1
- Using the same procedure, we solve the third activity.
4 3

We take light green rods which represent 3 and purple rods which represent 4 and arrange

them till they are of the same length.

Light green Light green Light green Light green

Purple Purple Purple
We realize that 4 light green rods and 3 purple rods make the same length.

Using white rods to represent the rods we can see that it's equivalent to 12 pieces of white rods.

Light green Light green Light green Light green

Purple Purple Purple

w w w w w w w w w w w w

1 3 3 9
Each light green is equal to and equivalent to hence 3 light green rods = or and 1
4 12 4 12

1 4
purple is equal to and is also equivalent to .
3 12

Comparing them together.

Light green Light green Light green

Purple

w w w w w w w w w w w w

Analysing, we can see that the difference between the rods is five white rods which means

3 1 5
- =
4 3 12

3 1 9−4 5
Algorithm - = =
4 3 12 12

Post-test questions.

With the help of Cuisenaire Rod solve the following questions.

2 1 5 3 5 2 5 1
1. - 2. - 3. 1 - 4. 7 - 5. -
5 10 12 8 8 5 6 8
Data Analysis Procedure

In analysing the data collected from the lesson based on the observation and test, the descriptive

method will be used for the analyses of data.

 CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS, AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS.

Research question one

What are the challenges that learners face in demonstrating an understanding of

subtracting proper fractions with different denominators?

Research question one was intended to fish out the possible challenges the learners faced in

demonstrating an understanding of solving subtraction of proper fractions with different

denominators.

During the research, it was observed that the learners could not solve questions given to them by

their teacher. It was because the teacher did not use TRLs in teaching the topic it resulted in the

learner's inability to solve questions given to them by the teacher.

It was also observed that the pupils struggled in using the correct approach in solving subtraction

of proper fractions with different denominators where some learners subtracted the two

denominators as well as the two numerators on top to yield an answer any time questions on

subtraction of proper fractions different denominators were given to them to solve.

Furthermore, a pre-test was conducted on the sample population for the study as a pre-activity

for the learners before introducing the intervention for this problem. The pre-test was conducted

to provide a baseline for comparison, assist in identifying issues, aid in planning interventions,

and contribute to the validity and reliability of the research findings.

A frequency distribution table including percentages showing the marks obtained by basic four

pupils of Aboabo Presby Primary.

Table 1 ( A frequency distribution of Pre-test )

Score (x) Frequency(f) F(x) Percentages (%)

0 3 0 30

1 6 6 60

2 1 2 10

3 0 0 0

4 0 0 0

5 0 0 0

Total ∑f = 10 ∑fx =8 100

The above table shows scores out of 5 with a pass mark of 3 out of 5 selected for the research. It

is evident that none of the learners reached the pass mark, and their best score was 2 out of 5.

Since their score was below the pass mark, an intervention was put in place to help resolve the

learner's inability to solve subtraction of proper fractions with different denominators.

Research question 2

To what extent has the use of Cuisenaire rods helped to improve the learner’s performance

on subtracting proper fractions with different denominators?

Research question 2 was intended to find out the extent to which the intervention has been of

benefit to the learner after its [Link] the attempt to bring a solution to the learner's

inability to solve proper fractions with different denominators, an intervention was put in place

which was the use of the Cuisenaire rod as a TLR to facilitate the learner's ability to get the

concept behind solving subtraction of fractions with different denominators and hence solving

questions under it.

After administering the intervention, a post-test was conducted to measure the level of

improvement that had taken place. A frequency distribution table is drawn showing the marks

obtained by the pupils in the post-test conducted for further analyses.

Table 2 (A frequency distribution of post-test)

Scores (x) Frequency (f) F (x) Percentage (%)

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0

2 0 0 0

3 1 3 10

4 2 8 20

5 7 35 70

Total ∑f = 10 ∑fx = 46 100

The above table shows scores out of 5 with the pass mark being 3 out of 5. Comparing their

scores to the supposed pass mark of 3 for the study. The post-test clearly shows that all 10 which

represent 100% of the learners passed the test after the intervention was implemented.

Comparing the pre-test to the post-test

Furthermore, a frequency table was constructed comparing the pre-test to the post-test conducted

to help in comparative analysis.

Table 3 (a frequency distribution representing both pre-test and post-test)

Score (x) Frequency (f) f(x) Percentages (%)

Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test

0 3 0 0 0 30 0

1 6 0 6 0 60 0

2 1 0 2 0 10 0

3 0 1 0 3 0 10

4 0 2 0 8 0 20

5 0 7 0 35 0 70

Total ∑f = 10 ∑f = 10 ∑fx = 8 ∑fx = 46 100 100

∑ fx 8 ∑ fx 46
Mean (x̄ ) = = = 0.8 (pre-test) Mean(x̄ ) = = = 4.6 (post-test)
∑f 10 ∑f 10

Comparing Pre-test and post-test

From the table, we can see a complete turnaround in performance by the learners after the

intervention was administered. The mean score for the pre-test and post-test shows the degree of

performance of the learners as per average score. Comparing the mean score of the post-test and

post-test to the pass mask of 3 marks the learner's results were very poor in the pre-test compared

to the post-test of which the mean score was far above the pass mark.

From the above, you can see comparatively that the marks scored in the pre-test have greatly

increased in the post-test which is a remarkable improvement.

A bar graph was also drawn to help analyse further the marks obtained by the learners in both the

pre-test and post-test in Figure 1

100

90

80

70

60
Percentage

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Marks

Post-test Pre-test
Figure 1 (bar graph representing pre-test and post-test)
Looking at the graph, the longest bar which happens to be 1 corresponding to 60% is considered

to be the modal mark among the bars representing the pre-test, and the longest bar among the

bars representing the post-test of the mark 5 corresponding to 70% is also the modal mark for

post-test results considered for these analyses. Looking at the modal mark of 5 in the post-test it

shows that a high number of the learners performed very well concerning the pass mark of 3 and

all 70% of learners had marks above the mean marks of 4.6 which means that the intervention

administer has been helpful to the learners.

Discussions

1. What are the challenges that learners face in demonstrating an understanding of

subtracting proper fractions with different denominators?

One of the difficulties the students had during the study was a lack of conceptual grasp. They

hardly understood the subject matter at all. This is because some methods relevant to the

understanding of the topic were not clarified. Learners often struggle with understanding the

concept of finding a common denominator and performing the necessary operations (Smith &

Johnson, 2011). The statement highlights the importance of conceptual understanding in the

subtraction of proper fractions with different denominators. Learners who lack a deep

understanding of the concept struggle to apply appropriate strategies when subtracting fractions

with different denominators (Jones, 2014). This lack of conceptual knowledge depicts difficulty

in determining common denominators hen it was considered an important factor in the

intervention to help the learners understand the concept clearly.

Some of the learners also could not practice on their own to understand and solve questions.

Learners encounter difficulties in subtracting proper fractions with different denominators due to

a lack of sufficient practice opportunities (Patel & Williams, 2015). This suggests that limited

practice can hinder mastery in applying subtraction strategies and impede learners’ overall

proficiency in this skill. Facing the same problem, the intervention was centred on building good

understanding, and conceptual knowledge so that learners could learn on their own after the

lesson.

Moreover, during the research, it was observed that the pupils were finding difficulties in

responding to questions posed to them by the mentor based on the subtraction of proper fractions

with different denominators because of their inability to grasp the concept since the mentor failed

to use TLRs in teaching the topic. I also observed that the pupils subtracted the two

denominators as well as the two numerators on top to yield an answer to any time questions on

subtraction of proper fractions with different denominators were given to them to solve, which is

wrong. In relation to this finding, there is no recorded literature review in chapter two of my

research work, but the intervention was structured in other to solve that problem as well.

2. To what extent has the use of the Cuisenaire rod helped to improve the learner’s

performance on subtracting proper fractions with different denominators?

Looking at the results after the intervention, it is evident that the use of the Cuisenaire rod has

been of good assistance to learners in solving the subtraction of proper fractions with different

denominators. The use of Cuisenaire rods provides learners with an enhanced visual

representation of fraction subtraction (Anderson & Thompson, 2012). By manipulating the rods,

learners can physically observe the process of subtracting fractions with different denominators.
This visual representation has helped the learners develop a deeper conceptual understanding of

the subtraction process, which resulted in improved performance.

The use of the Cuisenaire rod helped the learners to understand the concept of solving

subtraction of fractions with different denominators. The Cuisenaire rod was a hands-on method

of learning which made it easy for the learner to find answers to questions on the subtraction of

fractions with different denominators. The use of Cuisenaire rods as effective tools for promoting

a deeper conceptual understanding of fraction subtraction (Brown & Jones, 2018). By physically

manipulating the rods, learners explored different fraction relationships, such as finding common

denominators and identifying equivalent fractions. This hands-on approach fostered a more

thorough understanding of the subtraction process, boosting the understanding of the learners.

The learner who grasped the understanding of how to use the Cuisenaire rod tends to solve more

questions on their own. Learners who utilized Cuisenaire rods during fraction subtraction

activities could progress at their own pace (Smith & Davis, 2013). This individualized approach

facilitated a more personalized learning experience and contributed to improved performance.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3

In what way would Cuisenaire rod strategies affect remediation error of subtracting proper

fractions with different denominators?

Research question 3 was intended to fish out the remediation errors of subtracting proper

fractions with different denominators

- When subtracting fractions with different denominators, the common error is often due to a

lack of understanding of how denominators work. Cuisenaire rods help by showing that the rods

representing fractions must be compared in terms of a common length (common denominator).

- Students can physically manipulate the rods to find equivalent fractions that align with a

common length, reinforcing the concept of finding a common denominator.

Visualizing the Subtraction Process:

- By physically removing the length of one rod from another, students can see the result of the

subtraction process. This is particularly useful for understanding how much remains after

subtracting one fraction from another.

- For instance, to subtract 1/2 from 1/4, students can see that 1/2 (represented by a longer rod)

minus 1/4 (represented by a shorter rod) leaves a rod that visually represents the remaining

fraction.
 Pink

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

½ ½

- Errors often arise from mismanaging denominators or improperly performing subtraction.

Using Cuisenaire rods helps students visualize equivalent fractions and the subtraction process,

reducing the likelihood of these errors.

- Cuisenaire rods allow for hands-on correction of mistakes. If a student makes an error in the

process, they can quickly adjust the rods to see where they went wrong and correct their

understanding.

The tactile and visual nature of the rods engages students and helps in retaining the

concepts better. This engagement can be particularly effective in remediation as it provides a

break from traditional methods and can rekindle interest and understanding.

- Students who struggle with abstract numerical methods may find the concrete representation

more intuitive and easier to grasp.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

During the research work, it was identified that the causes of the poor performance of pupils in

the subtraction of proper fractions with different denominators and even understood the concept

of subtraction as being simple in teaching when applying appropriate TLRs. The causes are as

follows: Firstly, the attitude of some teachers towards the teaching of subtraction of fractions.

They understand that this concept can be challenging for students but refuse to take the time to

provide clear explanations, offer examples, and answer questions. They mostly do not create a

safe and encouraging classroom environment, allowing students to make mistakes and learn from

them.

Secondly, poor usage of TLRs at the basic level. Some teachers of the subject do not know the

art and use of various teaching and learning materials. Most teachers fail to use improvised TLRs

for lessons for the reason that Ghana Education service should make the Teaching and Learning

Resources (TLRs) available for use. Furthermore, it was deduced that the teacher's failure to use

the relevant TLRs to deliver their lessons resulted in pupils' poor performance in the results of

the pre-test exercise conducted. It can therefore be concluded at this stage that lessons taught

without Teaching and Learn Resources do not yield desirable outcomes and thus teachers should

avoid that unproductive way of teaching.

To assist the learners in solving the subtraction of proper fractions with different denominators, a

Cuisenaire rod was employed as a TRL. A step-by-step procedure for using the Cuisenaire rod to

solve subtraction proper fractions with different denominators was put in place to assist the

learners. The intervention was later tested with a post-test to find out the effectiveness of the

intervention, and it was proven positive since 100% of the learners per the records passed the

post-test.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I am of the view that teaching and learning are two sides of the same coin.

Therefore, a lesson is not taught until it has been learned. Teaching as a process should be

strongly facilitated by using relevant teaching and learning resources. Again, TLRs could be one

of the best ways to explain an idea and find solutions to most of the problems teachers face in

teaching the concept of subtraction of proper fractions with different denominators and other

concepts as well.

Recommendations

In relation to the findings from the study, I managed to come out with the under-listed proposals

for redress.

1. Mathematics teachers who teach JHS pupils the concept of addition and subtraction of

fractions should use activities that suit their background and interest in Mathematics.

2. Ghana education service supervisors should see to it that workshops and in-service programs

are organized periodically for teachers to be equipped with more practical means of teaching
subtraction of proper fractions and also upgrading their knowledge in using teaching and

learning materials.

3. I suggest that aching research can be conducted on other TLRs that can be used in teaching

and learning of subtraction of fractions with different denominators.