2.

6 Electrical Conductivity in Metals

The electron that has a great mobility to move to another electron state is an electron that energizes E
so that f(E)<1.

This occurs in the E∼EF area. Such electrons will flow when
subjected to an electric field. The close relationship of current J and electric field ε expressed by
Ohm's law

(6.1)
where σ is electrical conductivity. If the electron density is n and the drift rate of electrons vd, then the
current density can also be expressed in the form

(6..2)
In thermal equilibrium, the distribution of electrons is in a steady state of no (v), which is independent
of time. Indoor velocity, the distribution no (v) has spherical symmetry, and is called the Fermi sphere
(with the rate Fermi vF) , and its surfaceis called the Fermi surface. The speed of electrons is
random, and is related to energy through expressions
E = 1/2 m v2
represented by all points in the sphere. The total current is zero because each electron that is velocity
v always pairs with that velocity – v. The speed of electrons is huge on the surface of Fermi. Surface
Fermi no
so affected by temperature. When the temperature rises, only a few electrons pass through it.
Please note that experimental measurements show that
Fermi's spherical surface is distorted, as a result of which electrons and lattice interactions are
involved. This will be explained in the next chapter. When there is an electric field, for example, εX in
the direction of the X-axis, then the distribution of electrons changes to n(v). This change has a
position and time component. In this case the Fermi ball shifts tow
ards (-X), as shown by figure: a. Fermi ball at equilibrium; b. Fermi ball shift when subjected to
terrain

It is assumed that the speed of shifting the center point by the presence of this outer field is very small
when compared to vrms. When ε homogeneous (magnitude and direction), then the change in electron
distribution is only affected by the time component. The process that occurs is a change in the
distribution of electrons due to the influence of the outer field of the ε and the scattering process that
wants to restore it to its original state. The merging of these two processes yields the continuity
equation

(6.3)
where τ is the time of relaxation. This expression is often called the Boltzmann transport equation.
In the steady state ( ∂n(v) / ∂t = 0 ) the equation (6.3) becomes

(6.4)

In the above case it is taken so that equation (6.4) becomes

(6.5)
The density of electric current that

The integral of the first term of the equation (6.6) returns zero due to the average velocity

in no(v). Thus the current density (6.6) becomes

 (6.7)
Given that
a. τ=l/v, where l is the mean free pass between two collisions,

b. and
c. random motion of electrons so that the expression current density 3.48) changes to

(6.8)
From the electron density, after changing the variable E to v, obtained the distribution of electrons n o
(v) is nothing but

(6.9)
Substitution of the equation (6.8) and after the change of variable v to E, then the current density
(3.49) becomes :

(6.10)
Thus, given the relationship (6.10) obtained electrical conductivity

(6.11)

For temperature T=0 K, the price (-∂f(E)/∂E) is a delta Dirac function δ such that the inner integral is
(6.11)

(6.12)
And by using the expression electron density, the expression electrical conductivity (6.12) above
becomes

(6.13)
where τF is the relaxation time of an electron on a Fermi sphere. The expression electrical
conductivity above, it turns out, is the same form as the results of Drude's previous theory, both
Drude's theory and the quantized free electron model suggest that electrical conductivity is only
directly proportional to
electron concentration. However, some metals with higher electron concentrations actually show
lower conductivity values. In addition, the fact is that electrical conductivity depends on temperature,
and also direction.

2.7 Electron behavior in metals

• Matthiessen's law
The electrical conductivity of metals depending on temperature is usually discussed in the form of
resistivity behavior ρ to temperature T. It is known that ρ=σ--1 such that
Based on conductivity (6.13), resistivity can be written

(7.1)
Electrons undergo collisions only because of imperfections in lattice regularity. These imperfections
can be:
• Lattice vibrations (phonons) of ions around the equilibrium point due to their thermal
excitation All static imperfections, such as impurities or crystal defects.
If the mechanisms of the two are considered to be mutually independent of each other, then it can be
revealed

(7.2)
where the first term of the right segment is caused by phonons and the second term by impurities.
Thus generating the expression resistivity

(7.3)
This expression is called Matthiessen's law. It appears that ρ consists of two
form, i.e.
a. The ideal resistivity ρf(T) due to the scattering of electrons by phonons, so that
depending on temperature, and
b. The residual resistivity of ρi is due to the scattering of electrons by impurities (which are
independent of temperature).
At very low temperatures, scattering by phonons is negligible because amplitudo is very small; in hal
this τf→ ∞ and ρf=0 until ρ(T)=ρi are valuable
constant and its value is proportional to the concentration of impurities. At large enough temperatures,
scattering by phonons becomes dominant so that ρ(T)≅ρf(T).
At high temperatures (including room temperature), ρf(T) rises linearly with respect to T until the
metal reaches its melting point. But, at low temperatures its resistivity is proportional to T5. The
symptom of deviation from Matthiessen's law is called the Kondo effect. For example, ρ has a
minimum value at low temperature at a certain amount of impurities of Fe dissolved in Cu. This
anomalous property occurs due to the scattering of additional electrons by the magnetic moment of
the center of impurities.
• Hall Effect
The Hall effect can be discussed with the approach of the classical free electron model. Take a look at
figure 2 below. In a metal beam work two fields that are perpendicular to each other, namely the
electric field εX and the magnetic field BZ. Current IX flows in the direction εX. due to the influence
of the BZ field, the trajectory of the electron bends to
bottom, so that a lot of electrons accumulate at the bottom of the metal. At the same time, there is a
positive charge at the top due to lack electron. Thus a Hall εY electric field occurs. when the state is
stationary, εY is constant and the electron moves in the vX direction.

Figure 2. Hall Effect

In a state of consideration the resulting force that works on electrons ( Coulomb and Lorentz styles) is
equal to zero

(7.4)
current density in εX direction

(7.5)
thus obtained the price of the Hall constant

(7.6)
By measuring εY, JX and BZ, the conductivity electron density n can be determined.
The Hall effect can be used to determine

a. Types of charge carrier meetings (positive or negative), and

b. The conduction electron meeting that plays a role in the transmission process charge.
The expression of the Hall coefficient above indicates that RH is negative and depends only on the
density of electrons. The results of the experiment showed that
at room temperature the metals Li, Na, Cu, Ag, and Au have Hall constants –1 ,7.10-10, –2 ,5.10-10,
–0 ,55.10-10, –0 ,84.10-10, respectivelyand –0 ,72.10-10 volt.m3/A. But other facts show that some
metals have positive RH, and that RH, generally, depends on temperature, time relaxation and large
magnetic field. For example, the metals Zn, and Cd, respectively has a Hall constant of +0.3.10-10,
and +0.6.10-10 volts.m3/A. This indicates that the charge carriers in both are holes. Electron mobility
μ defined as the magnitude of the speed of electron propagation
Electric field union μ=V/ε. From the current density J=nev=neμε so that a relationship can be formed :

(7.7)
So experimentally by measuring the electrical conductivity of σ and the Hall coefficient

• Resonansi Siklotron
Take a look at Figure 3 below.
Gambar 3. Gerakan siklotron
The magnetic field causes electrons to move in a circle counterclockwise in the normal field of the
field. The frequency of cyclotron motion that occurs

(7.8)
If the signal of the electromagnet is directed perpendicular to B, then the electron absorbs its energy.
The greatest absorption speed occurs when the frequency of the signal is completely equal to the
frequency of the cyclotron
ω = ωC
Each electron moves perfectly along the circle so that absorption occurs continuously along the
trajectory. This condition is called cyclotron resonance. If ω ≠ ωC, then signal absorption occurs only
partially in motion
electron. In order for the motion of electrons to remain circular, they must restore the energy it has
absorbed. The shape of the absorption curve is shown in the following figure 4.

Figure 4. Sketch of absorption coefficient to frequency

From the absorption curve can be obtained the cyclotron frequency ωC. Thus the mass of the electron
m* can be measured.

Example question:
1. If N/L = 2 electrons/Å = 2 x 108 electrons/cm, determine the Fermi energy for this system!
Answer:
Use the equation: