CAMBRIDGE Language Teaching Library
Developments in
English for
Specific
A multi-disciplinary approach
Tony Dudley-Evans and
Maggie Jo St John
CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBRARY
A series covering central issues in language teaching and learning, by authors
who have expert knowledge in their field.
In this series:
Approaches in Methods in Language Teaching by Jack C. Richards and
Theodore S. Rodgers
Appropriate Methodology and Social Context by Adrian Holliday
Beyond Training by Jack C. Richards
Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching edited by David Nunan
Communicative Language Teaching by William Littlewood
Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching by Christopher Brumfit
Course Design by Fraida Dubin and Elite Olshtain
Culture Bound edited by Joyce Merrill Valdes
Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom by David Nunan
Developments in ESP by Tony Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St John
Developing Reading Skills by Franroise Grellet
Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers by Michael McCarthy
Discourse and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch
English for Academic Purposes by R.R. Jordan
English for Specific Purposes by Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters
Focus on the Language Classroom by Dick Allwright and Kathleen M. Bailey
Foreign and Second Language Learning by William Littlewood
Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective edited by Michael [Link]'
Michael Fleming.
The Language Teaching Matrix by Jack C. Richards
Language Test Construction and Evaluation by]. Charles Alderson,
Caroline Clapham and Dianne Wall
Learner-centredness as Language Education by Ian Tudor
Managing Curricular Innovation by Numa Markee
Materials Development in Language Teaching edited by Brian Tomlinson
Psychology for Language Teachers by Marion Williams and Robert L. Burden
Research Methods in Language Learning by David Nunan
Second Language Teacher Education edited by Jack C. Richards and David Nunan
Society and the canguage Classroom edited by Hywell Coleman
Teacher Learning in Language Teaching edited by Donald Freeman and Jack C.
Richards
Teaching the Spoken Language by Gillian Brown and George Yule
Understanding Research in Second Language Learning by James Dean Brown
Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy edited by Norbert Schmitt and
Michael McCarthy
Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch and
Cheryl Brown
Voices From the Language Classroom edited by Kathleen M. Bailey and
David Nunan
Developments in ESP
A multi-disciplinary approach
Tony Dudley-Evans
Maggie Jo St John
[Link]
. ... :� ..... CAMBRIDGE
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UNIVERSITY PRESS
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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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© Cambridge University Press, 1998
This book is copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1998
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeset in ro.5/12pt Sabon [ CE]
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data applied for
ISBN o 521 59329 8 Hardback
ISBN o 521 59675 o Paperback
Preface Vlll
Acknowledgements X
Acronyms and definitions Xlll
I Introduction :r
r.r Aims I
1.2 Overview I
r.3 A definition of ESP 2
r.4 Classification of ESP 5
I. 5 Carrier content and real content II
r.6 Roles of the ESP practitioner 13
r.7 ESP as a multi-disciplinary activity 17
r.8 Summary 18
1.9 Recommended reading 18
2 A historical perspective on ESP
2.1 Aims
2.2 The balance between research and practice
2 .3 Trends in English for Academic Purposes
2. 4 Authenticity of text and authenticity of purpose
2. 5 Trends in English for Occupational Purposes
2.6 ESP now
2. 7 Summary 32
2. 8 Recommended reading 32
3 English for Academic Purposes 34
3.1 Aims 34
3 .2 Four types of EAP situation 34
3.3 English for General Academic Purposes and English for Specific
Academic Purposes 4r
3.4 Engaging with the disciplines 42
3.5 Professional disciplines: EAP or EOP? 48
3.6 Summary 52
3.7 Recommended reading 52
V
Contents
4 English for Business Purposes 53
4.1 Aims 53
4.2 Characteristics of Business English 53
4.3 English for General Business Purposes and English for Specific
Business Purposes 55
4.4 The role of needs analysis in Business English 57
4.5 Teachers of Business English 59
4.6 Key issues for Business English 61
4.7 English for Business Purposes versus English for Academic Purposes 72
4.8 Summary 73
4.9 Recommended reading 73
5 Language issues in ESP 74
5.1 Aims 74
5.2 Grammar in ESP 74
5.3 Vocabulary in ESP 80
5.4 Discourse and genre analysis 87
5.5 Summary 94
5.6 Recommended reading 94
6 The skills in EAP and EOP 95
6. r Aims 95
6 .2 Reading skills in ESP 95
6.3 Listening to monologue IOI
6.4 Listening and speaking skills in ESP 105
6.5 Speaking monologue 112
6.6 Writing skills in ESP 114
6 .7 Summary 120
6.8 Recommended reading 120
7 Needs analysis and evaluation 121
7.1 Aims 121
7.2 Needs analxsis 122
7.3 Evaluation 128
7.4 Collecting data for needs analysis and evaluation purposes 131
7.5 Summary 139
7 .6 Recommended reading 140
7.7 Extracts 14 0
8 Course design 14 5
8.r Aims 145
8.2 Parameters of course design 145
8.3 Balancing the parameters 1 54
8.4 Case studies 155
Vl
Contents
8.5 Developing a course outline
8.6 Summary
8.7 Recommended reading
9The role of materials 170
9.1 Aims 170
9.2 T he purpose of materials 170
9.3 Writers or providers of materials? 172
9.4 Teacher-generated material 176
9.5 Learner-generated material 180
9.6 Materials and technology 184
9.7 Summary 185
9.8 Recommended reading 186
IO Classroom practice and beyond 187
IO.I Aims 187
I0.2 Learners' specialist knowledge 188
ro.3 Class size 196
ro.4 Beyond the classroom 204
ro.5 Summary 209
ro.6 Recommended reading 209
II Assessment: Continuous assessment and testing 210
II.I Aims 210
II.2 Why assess? 210
11.3 Classroom assessment 211
r1.4 Classroom tests 213
r r. 5 Public examinations developed in the UK 214
r r.6 Reporting test results: band descriptors 217
1 r. 7 In-house test development 221
1 r.8 ESP test questions 225
11.9 Summary 228
11.10 Recommended reading 229
Epilogue 230
Extracts
Guidance for tasks
References
Index
Vll
Developments in ESP
3.4.2 Collaboration
If cooperation largely involves the language teacher taking the initiative
and finding out what happens in the subject department, collaboration
involves the more direct working together of the two sides, language
and subject, to prepare students for particular tasks or courses. In
collaboration the language and subject teacher work together outside
the classroom. The collaboration has clear goals but also defined limits.
There are three options for collaborative work:
1. The planning of a series of classes where the language class prepares
the students for a subsequent subject class taught in English.
2. The running of a class on a specific skill or related to a specific task
where the subject department has a specific input to the materials or
the language teacher uses material produced by the department.
3. The North American 'adjunct' model, in which the adjunct acts as a
back-up class to the subject, helping students with difficulties with
that class.
A good example of the first option was the collaborative economics
and-language course run for Iranian students of Finance at the Uni
versity of Birmingham in the 1970s (Henderson and Skehan, 1980). The
language levfl of the students was low and a major aim of the course
was to move students from a dependence on rote learning towards
developing critical thinking and a more questioning approach to
learning. The economics lectures were based on a 20-minute tape
accompanied by a set of 1 5 to 18 slides. Although the content and
organisation of the course were appropriate for the students, the
language was too difficult. A simplified version of the script was there
fore written by the language teacher working with the subject teacher
and recorded for use in the economics class.
All the language material was designed to prepare for the tape/slide
presentation run by the economics teacher and its aims were thus
subordinate to the aims of the economics class. Other English classes
running in parallel with this course presented a more systematic
approach to the teaching of relevant skills and language. Henderson
and Skehan (1980) conclude that the course was successful because the
collaboration resulted in a set of materials that were at the right
linguistic level for the students, but also had validity from the subject
point of view. They also recommend what they refer to as a 'phased
approach to team-teaching', a point that we will take up later in this
section (pp. 47-48).
An example of the second option is a reading programme run for
44
English for Business Purposes
cannot be separated. In English Lr EAP situations, the NNS generally
has to adapt to both language and culture. In EBP situations, the NNS
may use the language but not adopt the culture: it is unlikely to be
appropriate for a Finn negotiating with a Vietnamese to adopt an
English-speaking cultural attitude.
We also mentioned that EBP teachers do not generally have any direct
experience of their learners' context whereas all EAP teachers have
studied in an academic environment.
4.8
Business English is the current growth area in ESP and covers both courses
for pre-experience learners (EGBP) and courses for job-experienced
learners (ESBP). The primary concern is to communicate effectively, not
necessarily totally accurately. As professionals, business people have
very clear purposes and expect high quality, value for money and
professionally delivered courses. More courses now combine language
and skills development and more account is taken of the business
context and business relationships. It is being recognised that the
language depends on variables such as status, power and how well
established the relationship is. Although many of the short, intensive
courses are for spoken interaction, writing is important. With more
personal computers and e-mail and less secretarial support, more
business people have to compose their own correspondence. With the
growth of transnational corporations, NNSs may have to write in
English because documents will be read or copied to a NS Head Office
or to NS staff. The professional demands placed on Business English
teachers may well be higher than on those in other fields.
4.9
Dudley -Evans and St John (1996} and the special edition of English for
Specific Purposes (vol. 15.1) provide an overview of both research and
materials in the 1990s in BE. Ellis and Johnson (1994) provide an
introduction to the teaching of BE. The books by Scallon and ScoUon
(1995) and Mead (1990) provide useful introductions to intercultural
issues. The books by Trompenaar (1993) and Handy (1992) will interest
those who want to find out more about business ideas and philosophy.
The BESIG Newsletter and Language and Intercultural Training
publish practical articles related to BE and training issues.
73
Developments in ESP
is what learners already know, a present situation analysis (PSA), from
which we can deduce their lacks. Thus, a TSA includes objective,
perceived and product-oriented needs; an LSA includes subjective, felt
_
and process-oriented needs; a PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses
in language, skills, learning experiences.
Task 7a-<>
Group the following statements under the headings target situation
analysis (TSA), learning situation analysis (LSA) and present situation
analysis (PSA).
r. I need to see vocabulary written down.
I have occasional meetings with British colleagues.
2.
3. I find it difficult to write persuasively.
4. I pick things up by listening.
5. Student X needs to read more widely.
6. I like problem solving.
7. I get my tenses mixed up.
8. I hate group work.
9. I have to write reports.
ro. My problem is finding the right word.
To establish a workable course design, means analysis is suggested
(Holliday and Cooke, 1982: 133) as an adjunct to needs analysis.
Means analysis looks at the environment in which a course will be run
or, as in the original metaphor that generated the term, the environment
in which a project will take root, grow healthily and survive. The two
key factors considered are the classroom culture and the management
infrastructure and culture. An important perspective is that these are
viewed not as negative constraints but as relevant [Link] negative
constraints view' corresponds to: 'ideally we would do ...but it is not
possible so we will compromise and do ...' The relevant-features
perspective is a positive approach which says: 'what will be best in this
particular and given situation?'
Means analysis is an acknowledgement that what works well in one
situation may not work in [Link] hotel staff around the world
may share some similar language needs, how they learn the language,
the conditions in which they are learning and where and how they apply
the language are not the same. So the needs, and how they are
prioritised, ordered and then met will be different.
124
Developments in ESP
analysis - E + F, p. 125.) For instance, the passive uses the verb to
be· many 'if clauses' use the would/should/could modal verbs; the
m:taphorical meaning of expressions may derive directly or indirectly
from their literal meaning.
These two criteria of 'when needed' and 'building' do not usually
order everything. Some items will now be in specific places in the jigsaw,
others could, at this stage fit in more than one place. They will fit into a
specific place either because of other related variables in the grid or
because of the materials or according to additional criteria such as:
building confidence. For instance, at Dunchurch presentations come
before meetings partly because it is easier to speak a prepared mono
logue than to take turns in a meeting. (Also, taking part in a meeting
may mean giving a brief presentation so the building block criteria also
applies to some extent.)
Task 8c *
Look at the case studies and deduce some of the target events.
Case study Target events
JUST course III
Research scientists, India
Dunchurch
University of Birmingham Masters in
IBF (International Banking and
Finance)
(b) From target events and rhetorical awareness to skill areas to
language
The target events will have been broken down into skill areas and the
appropriate rhetorical awareness considered as part of the needs
analysis. For the Birmingham IBF students, the 'needs associated with
writing their assignments broke down into four skill areas:
Elwriting a good introduction
citing sources and attributing ideas
411
• writing in an academic style
@ discussing data
Within those the students needed to develop an awareness of how to
Developments in ESP
Text comprehension
Working with a partner, learners prepare comprehension questions (and
the answers) on a text. They exchange with another pair and answer the
questions they are given. This can be extended to language work around
the wording and phrasing of the questions. A further class activity is to
compare all the questions and discuss which they think are best. The
discussion usually helps to distinguish main points from minor issues.
The group can select the best ones and then there is a set of questions
the teacher can use for another group!
Note-taking/information transfer
Similarly, learners can devise information transfer activities for their
peers (and the teacher) to complete.
Vocabulary development
We discussed techniques for vocabulary development in chapter 5.
Learners can generate their own sets or word partnerships; they can
devise matching and grouping activities and try them out on each
other.
Reflection 9g
Take a text you use with learners (or one of our extracts, although they
are rather short) and consider what activities learners could carry out on
it. Write the rubrics that instruct them to generate their own questions,
notes, vocabulary or other exercises.
Technology offers the possibility of alternative materials and classroom
interactions (chapter Io). After audio and video cassettes , the next
major technological change, in the I980s, was the use of computers and
the opportunities for Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL).
CALL programs are largely linear, constructed along certain thought
patterns , with a single or limited response. The development of
CD-ROM has brought more interactive packages. For the learner, CD
ROM offers information and the opportunity for repetitive practice.
Guidance for tasks
Task 2d
Clearly the answer depends on circumstances in the ESP situation. We
believe that there are advantages in ESP teachers specialising, but not to
the extent that they teach only one skill or in only one department or
sector. Some variety and flexibility seems desirable, so we support the
idea that teachers should concentrate on certain subject areas for a
period of time.
EAP unit in department: Advantages = easier administration; possibi-
of considerable integration of the EAP work with the subject
teaching. Danger = professional isolation. Centralised unit: opportunity
to coordinate work; greater variety of teaching; professional develop
ment through joint research projects, seminars and general discussion.
Perhaps the ideal is a combination of the two systems with EAP teachers
based in one centre, but working in teams in key departments?
Task 3b
Both students will need all the skills. Postgraduate MBA: lecture
comprehension a major priority; reading comprehension fairly impor
tant; writing essays very important - the use of source material and
avoiding excessive copying from those sources can be a problem so this
will be a priority. PhD research student: less need of listening compre
hension; priorities will be reading and writing; may well need some
induction into the expectations of the department about research
students and the relationship with the supervisor, so spoken interaction
skills and language.
Task 3d
Different answers are possible. Our view is:
Situation r Situation 2 Situation 3 Situation 4
Cooperation Very feasible Very feasible Very feasible Very feasible
Collaboration Very feasible Very feasible Possible Possible
Team-teaching Very feasible Possible Possible Unsuitable
The answers will always depend on the language unit's relationship with the subject
departments.
References
Dudley-Evans, A. 1994. Genre analysis: an approach to text analysis for ESP. In
M. Coulthard (Ed.) Advances in Written Text Analysis. London: Routledge.
Dudley-Evans, A. 199 5. Common-core and specific approaches to the teaching
of academic writing. In D. Belcher and G. Braine (Eds.) Academic Writing
in a Second Language. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Dudley-Evans, A. and W. Henderson. 1990. The Language of Economics: the
Analysis of Economics Discourse. ELT Documents no. 134. London:
Modern English Publications in association with The British Council.
Dudley-Evans, A. and T. F. Johns. 1981. A team-teaching approach to lecture
comprehension. In The Teaching of Listening Comprehension. ELT Docu
ments Special. Oxford: Pergamon in association with The British Council.
Dudley-Evans, A. and M. J. St John. 1996. Report on Business English: A
Review of Research and Published Teaching Materials. TOEIC Research
Report no. 2. Princeton, NJ: The Chauncey Group International.
Dunn, R. and S. Griggs. 1990. Research on the learning style characteristics of
selected racial and ethnic groups. Reading, Writing and Learning Disabil
ities, 6: 261-80.
Ellis, M., N. O'Driscoll and A. Pilbeam. 1987 onwards. Longman Business
English Skills Series. London: Longman.
Ellis, M. and C. Johnson. 1994. Teaching Business English. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Ewer, J. and G. Latorre. 1969. A Course in Basic Scientific English. London:
Longman.
Ewer, J. and G. Hughes-Davies. 1971, 1972. Further notes on developing an
English programme for students of science and technology. English Lan
guage Teaching, 26, 1 and 3. Reprinted in J. M. Swales (Ed.) Episodes in
ESP.
Fairclough, N. 1989. Language and Power. London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. 1992. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Firth, A. 1995. The Discourse of Negotiation: Studies of Language in the
Workplace. Oxford: Pergamon.
Fisher, R and W. Ury. 1981. Getting to Yes. New York: Houghton Mifflin and Co.
Flower, L. 198 5. Problem Solving Strategies for Writing. 2nd ed. San Diego:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Flowerdew, J. 1994. Academic Listening: Research Perspectives. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Flowerdew, L. 199 5. Designing CALL courseware for an ESP situation: a
report on a case study. English for Specific Purposes, 14: 19-36.
Flowerdew, L. (in press) CALL Materials derived from integrating 'expert' and
'interlanguage' corpora findings. English for Specific Purposes.
Foley, J. 1979. Problems of understanding science and technological textbooks
in English for first year students at the University of Petroleum and
Minerals. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London.