Corse Title: Apply Industrial Control

Systems Design
Course Code: MCTIC601
 Learning Outcomes: 1.1.
Describe a Control System
What is a Control System?
• A control system is a system or a set of devices that manages, commands, directs, or regulates
the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve a desired result.

• A control system achieves this through control loops, which are a process designed to
maintain a process variable at a desired set point.

• A control system can operate on an open-loop or closed-loop model, depending on whether

the output has any feedback on the input.
• A simple example of a control system is a water tap, where the input (the handle) controls the
output (the water flow).

• In other words, the definition of a control system can be simplified as a system, which
controls other systems.
• As human civilization is being modernized day by day the demand for automation has
increased alongside it. Automation requires control over systems of interacting devices.
✓ A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by
controlling the output.
✓ The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Figure 1: Control System

On the above picture,
• The control system is represented by a single block.
• Since, the output is controlled by varying input, the control system got this name.
• We will vary this input with some mechanism.
• It is a set of mechanical or electronic devices that regulates other devices or systems by way
of control loops.
• Typically, control systems are computerized.
• Control systems are a central part of industry and of automation.
• It is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. The following
figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.
• A control system is a group of technological parts used to manipulate, manage, or control a
machine or machine’s features. Control systems are in the vast majority of devices we use
every day.
✓ The control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by varying
input, the control system got this name.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine.
❖ Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal
is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for
some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic
study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly,
the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.
❖Requirements of a Good Control System
i. Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and
defines the limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in normal
operating conditions.
Accuracy can be improved by using feedback elements. To increase the accuracy of
any control system error detector should be present in the control system.
ii. Sensitivity: The parameters of a control system are always changing with the
change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance, or any other parameters.
This change can be expressed in terms of sensitivity. Any control system should be
insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to input signals only.
[Link]: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control system
should be able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.
[Link]: It is an important characteristic of the control system. For the
bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if the input is zero then
the output must be zero then such a control system is said to be a stable system.
v. Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of the
control system. Bandwidth should be as large as possible for the frequency
response of a good control system.
vi. Speed: It is the time taken by the control system to achieve its stable output. A
good control system possesses high speed. The transient period for such a
system is very small.
[Link]: A small number of oscillations or constant oscillations of output
tends to indicate the system to be stable.
 Basic Terminologies of a control system
✓ The basic elements of a control system play crucial roles in managing and regulating various
processes.
1. System: it refers to the physical entity or process that we want to control. It could be
anything from a manufacturing assembly line to a temperature control system in your home.
Understanding the system’s behavior and dynamics is essential for effective control. is a
combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form a whole
unit such that the combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal. Consider an Electric
Motor. It is a physical system with components like rotor, stator, a cage, wiring etc. It accepts
electrical energy an input and produces a mechanical energy as output.
Figure 2: System
❖Based on this example, we can redefine the concept of System as an
arrangement of components within a boundary, which work together by
accepting an input (or multiple inputs) and provide an output.
[Link]: involves making adjustments or influencing the system’s behavior to
achieve desired outcomes.
✓ It’s like steering a ship to stay on course.
✓ Control can be open-loop (where actions are based on a predetermined plan) or
closed-loop (where feedback from the system guides adjustments).
✓ is the action to command, direct or regulate a system.
✓ Control is the regulation of organizational activities so that some targeted
element of performance remains within acceptable limits.
✓ Control provides ways to adapt to environmental change, to limit the
accumulation of errors, to cope with organizational complexity, and to
minimize costs.
➢ Control can focus on financial, physical, information, and human resources and includes
operations, structural, and strategic levels.
✓ Control is the function of managers, the controller, and, increasingly, of operating employees.
❖ Steps in the control process are:
✓ To establish standards of expected performance.
✓ To measure actual performance.
✓ To compare performance to the standards.
✓ To evaluate the comparison and take appropriate action.
3. Input: Input represents the starting point for any control system. It’s where commands,
actions, or adjustments enter the system. For instance, if you want a red light to blink, that
request begins as input.
4. Output: The output is the result produced by the control system based on the input. It’s
closely tied to the input—specific values lead to specific outcomes. For example, adjusting the
input might change the fan speed or alter the temperature in a room.
5. Plant: The plant refers to the part of the system that responds to control actions. It’s the
machinery, process, or physical entity affected by the control system. For instance, in a
temperature control system, the air conditioner or heater is the plant. The part or component of
a system that is required to be controlled. Examples plants: CD player,; computer network;
elevator sensors: GPS; mechanical; electro-mechanical; analog electrical; general purpose
digital processor; special purpose digital processor. The system to be controlled is called the
plant.
 6. Feedback: is the backbone of all control systems. This feedback is nothing but the
information that managers use to correct their organization’s actual performance.
✓ It is essential for closed-loop control systems.
✓ Feedback is the signal that is sent back to the controller to adjust the output signal
✓ It involves measuring the system’s output and comparing it to the desired setpoint.
✓ If there’s an error (difference between actual and desired), the control system adjusts the
input to minimize the error.
✓ Feedback ensures stability and accuracy.
✓ The aim of feedback is basically to adjust future actions using previous experiences.
▪ Feedback may be either formal or informal.
✓ Formal feedback consists of sources like financial statements, statistics, reports, other
written communication, etc. On the other hand, informal feedback includes personal
opinions, informal discussions and an individual’s observations.
✓ Feedback is widely used in automatic control.
➢ Remember, these elements work together to maintain stability, optimize performance, and
achieve desired outcomes.
❖ Basic elements of a control System
• Control systems are found in a wide variety of areas, including chemical processing,
aerospace, manufacturing, and automotive engineering.
•The basic elements of a control system are:
I. Controller: or control processor processes the sensor signal to drive the actuator.
II. Actuator: affects the plant.
III. Processor
IV. Sensor: measures the quantity to be controlled.
The actuator is the device that converts the signal from the amplifier into motion.
 I. Controller
✓ Controller that adjusts the actuator in response to the measurement.
✓ controller is the element of the system that receives the input signal and
generates the output signal.
✓ The controller receives the sensor measurement and compares it to the target
(set point) to determine what adjustment is needed to the actuator.
✓ The controller bridges the gap between the processor and the actuators.
✓ It interprets the processor’s output and adjusts the actuator’s behavior
accordingly.
✓ Controllers come in various forms, such as PID (Proportional-Integral-
Derivative) controllers, which maintain desired setpoints by adjusting actuator
inputs.
✓ Essentially, the controller ensures that the system operates within desired
parameters.
II. Actuators
• It converts electrical or digital signals into mechanical movement. For
example, in an industrial setting, actuators might control valves, motors, or
robotic arms.
• Actuators are devices that convert energy (typically electrical) into mechanical
motion or control other devices/systems based on input received.
• They bring about changes in the system by physically manipulating elements.
• An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an amplifier
may be required to provide sufficient power to drive the actuator.
• It is the device that causes the process to provide the output.
• It is the device that provides the motive power to the process.
❖ Types of Actuators
1. Electrical actuators
➢Electric motors
➢ DC servomotors
➢AC motors
➢Stepper motors
➢Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
✓ Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller
command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
❖ Use compressed air as the driving force
 III. sensor
✓ A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical stimulus from one form into
a more useful form to measure the stimulus.
✓ Sensors are the input devices that collect data from the environment or the
system being controlled. They measure physical quantities (e.g., temperature,
pressure, position) and convert them into electrical signals. These signals are
then fed to the processor for analysis. Sensors provide real-time information,
enabling the control system to respond appropriately.
❖ Two basic categories:
1. Analog
2. Discrete
✓ Binary
✓ Digital (e.g., pulse counter)
[Link]: The processor, also known as the central processing
unit (CPU), is the heart of the control system.
✓ It receives input signals from sensors, processes them, and generates
output signals to actuators.
✓ Think of it as the decision-making center that analyzes information
and determines the appropriate actions.
Note: these elements work together to maintain stability, optimize
performance, and achieve organizational goals. Whether it’s regulating
temperature in a manufacturing plant or managing financial
transactions, control processes rely on these fundamental components
❖How Sensors and Actuators Work Together
✓ Sensors and actuators work in cycle to create smart systems capable of
responding to their environment.
✓ The sensor gathers data about a specific physical property, such as temperature
or pressure, and transmits this information to a controller.
✓ The controller then processes the data, making decisions based on predefined
rules or algorithms, and sends commands to the actuator.
✓ The actuator then performs the required action, adjusting the system
accordingly.
❖ What are sensors controllers and actuators used
for?
• The sensor gathers data about a specific physical
property, such as temperature or pressure, and
transmits this information to a controller.
• The controller then processes the data, making
decisions based on predefined rules or algorithms, and
sends commands to the actuator.
⁂Classification of control systems: control system classified into two.
A. Open Loop Control System
B. Closed Loop Control System
A. Open Loop System: is a Control System which doesn’t have any feedback
connected to it.
✓ These types of systems don’t depend upon its output i.e., in open loop
systems, output is not used as a control variable for the system and it has no
effect on the input.
✓ Open loop systems are one way signal flow systems.
✓ As these systems doesn’t contain any feedback i.e., the output is not fed back
to the input, these are also known as Non-Feedback Systems.
✓ A system that utilizes a device to control the process without using feedback.
✓ Thus the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.
✓ It is a control system where its control action only depends on input signal and does not
depend on its output response.

Figure 4: Open-loop control system

B. Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the output and
compares it with the desired output.
▪ It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and output
response.
➢ In simple words, in these systems, the output of the system controls the input applied to the
system.
➢ The variation in input according to the output leads to produce more accurate system output.
➢ Thus controllability in the closed-loop system is achieved through the output generated by
utilizing a feedback path.

Figure 5: Closed-loop control system

✓ This control system has one or more feedback loops among its input & output.
✓ This system provides the required output by evaluating its input.
✓ This kind of system produces the error signal and it is the main disparity
between the output and input of the system.

Figure 6: Examples of closed-loop control system

✓ The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the
input and the feedback signal.
✓ This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block.
✓ Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
✓ So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant.
✓ In this combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically
till we get the desired response.
✓ Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control
systems.
✓ Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of a
closed loop control system.
➢ The figure here shows the detailed block diagram representation of a closed-loop control
system:

Figure 3: Types of feedback

❖ The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in
the following table.
Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

✓ Control action is independent of the ✓ Control action is dependent of the

desired output. desired output.
✓ Feedback path is not present. ✓ Feedback path is present.
✓ These are also called as non-feedback ✓ These are also called as feedback
control systems. control systems.
✓ Easy to design. ✓ Difficult to design.
✓ These are economical. ✓ These are costlier.
✓ Inaccurate. ✓ Accurate
Figure 7: The difference between Open and closed -loop control system
 Applications of open and closed loop control system
➢ Applications of Open Loop System : We use open loop control systems in many
applications of our day-to-day lives. Some of the popular systems, which are designed based on
the concept of open loop control systems, are mentioned below:
➢ Washing Machine
➢ Electric Bulb
➢ Electric Hand Drier
➢ Time based Bread Toaster
➢ Automatic Water Faucet
➢ TV Remote Control
➢ Electric Clothes Drier
➢ Shades or Blinds on a window
➢ Stepper Motor or Servo Motor
➢ Inkjet Printers
➢ Door Lock System
➢ Traffic Control System
❖ Disadvantages of Open Loop control System
✓ The bandwidth of open loop control system is less.
✓ The non-feedback system doesn’t facilitate the process of automation.
✓ Open loop systems are inaccurate in nature and also unreliable.
✓ If their output is affected by some external disturbances, there is no way to
correct them automatically as these are non-feedback systems.
➢ Applications of Closed-loop control systems: are used in a variety of applications. Some
examples of these applications are:
✓ Automatic toaster
✓ Automatic washing machine
✓ Air conditioner
✓ Automatic water level controller in water tanks
✓ DC Motor speed controller
➢ Some disadvantages of closed loop control systems are:
✓ They are costlier, complex, and require more maintenance than open-loop systems.
✓ The feedback may lead to oscillatory response, reduced gain, and stability issues.
✓ They have slower speed of operation and can’t handle major disruptions or
uncertainties.
✓ They lack the flexibility to self-correct and recover from accidental stoppag
❖Description of Control System signals and Models
I. Types of signals
The signals are classified into several types depending on the criteria used for their
classification. This classification aims to exploit the basic properties of the signals
to our advantage in the analysis of signals and systems. The types of signals those
are useful in the analysis of signals and systems, namely
✓ Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
✓ Even and Odd signals
✓ Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
✓ Energy and Power signals
✓ Deterministic Signals and Random signals
✓ Causal and Non-causal Signals
✓ Analog and Digital Signals
I. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
•In control systems, continuous time signals, all the signals are
continuous in time. But, in discrete time signals, there exists one
or more discrete time signals.
✓ Continuous-time signals: These signals vary smoothly over an infinite range of
time.
✓ Discrete-time signals: These signals change only at specific instances in time
and are defined at the discrete moment of time. The mathematical function
takes the discrete set of values.
✓ For a discrete-time signal module f(n), the argument ‘n’ must be an integer, in
contrast, the argument ‘t’ of the continuous-time signal can be any real value.
✓ If a continuous-time signal time signal f(t) is uniformly sampled to form a
discrete-time signal f(nTs) such that t=nTs
f(nTs) = f(t), n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,….
where Ts is the sampling period (sec/sample).
If Ts = 1 sec/sample, then f(nTs)=f(n)
The below figure shows a continuous-time signal f(t)=sint and its discrete-time
version f(nTs).
Figure 8: Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
Here the arrow indicates the amplitude of the sample at the origin, and the values
right to the arrow represent the amplitude of the sample for the positive values of
‘n’ and the values to its left will be the sample amplitudes for the negative values of
‘n’.
II. Even and Odd Signals
Even Signal
If f(t) is a continuous-time signal, that is symmetric about the vertical axis such that
it appears visually identical to its time-reversal version, such signal is known as an
even signal.
For continuous-time signal
f(−t) = f(t)
For a discrete-time signal
f(−n) = f(n)
Example:

Figure 9: Even Signals

Odd Signal
If f(t) is a continuous-time signal, it will be called an odd signal, if it is anti-symmetric about
its vertical axis, such that:
For continuous-time signal
f(−t) = −f(t)
For a discrete-time signal to be an odd signal
f(−n)= −f(n)
Example:

Figure 10: Odd Signals

• But in practice, most of the signals are neither even nor odd, for such signals
we can find even and odd parts such signals to exploit the symmetry in the
analysis of signals and systems.
• If f(t) is any continuous-time signal that is neither an even signal nor an odd
signal, then
•Even part of the signal is
•The odd part of the signal is
Then f(t) is representable as the sum of its even component (fe(t))and its odd
component(fo(t)).
f(t) = (fe(t))+(fo(t))
III. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
✓ If any signal has a definite pattern, that repeats itself at a regular interval, such
signal is known as a periodic signal.
✓ If it does not have such a pattern, then it is known as an aperiodic signal.
✓ If f(t) is a continuous-time periodic signal, then
f(t)= f(t ± kT)
Where ‘T’ is the fundamental time period of the signal f(t), and ‘k’ is an integer.
T=1/frequency(f)=2π/ω
Where, ω is the angular frequency, ω =2πf.
If f(n) is a discrete-time signal,
f(n) = F(n+N)
Where ‘n’ is an integer and ‘N’ is the fundamental time period. Here N is the
number of samples taken by the signal to repeat the same pattern, it is an integer, in
contrast ‘T’ can be any real value for a continuous-time signal.
Figure 11: Periodic Signals.
Figure 12: Aperiodic Signals.
[Link] and Random Signals
If a signal’s future value is known exactly at present, such signal is called a
deterministic signal.
Example: f(t) = 3t + 6
At t=0; f(t) = 3(0) + 6 = 6 (present value)
At t=10; f(t) = 3(10) + 6 = 36 (future value)
If the future value of the signal cannot be determined at present, such signals are
called random signals, such signals can only be expected or estimated.

V. Causal and Non-causal Signals

If f(t) is a signal such that
f(t)= 0; t<0
Then f(t) is known as a causal signal.
Example:
If f(t) is a signal that has a defined value in the interval t<0; such signals are
known as non-causal signals.
f(t) ≠ 0; t < 0
Example:

Figure 12: Non-causal Signals

VI. Analog and Digital Signals
Concerning time, the signals are classified into continuous-time signals
and discrete-time signals. Similarly based on the value the signals are
classified into analog and digital. If the value of the signal can be any
real value in its dynamic range such signals are known as analog signals.
Whereas if the signal is allowed to consider the specific values in its
dynamic range such signals are known as digital signals.

Figure 13: Signals

➢ A digital signal is a voltage signal that is either on or off with
nothing in between. A switch is the simplest type of digital
signal sensor. The signal from the switch could be 0 volts
when off and 12 volts when on.
➢ Analog signals have continuously variable voltage. A good
example is the coolant temperature sensor. The coolant
temperature sensor may vary the voltage signal anywhere
between 0 volts and 5 volts depending on the temperature of
the engine.
II. Types of Models
•Static vs. dynamic: A static simulation model, sometimes called Monte Carlo
simulation, represents a system at particular point in time. A dynamic simulation
model represents systems as they change over time.
•Deterministic vs. stochastic: A deterministic simulation contains no random
variable(s). e.g. patients arrive in a doctor's office at a pre-scheduled time.
A stochastic simulation involves one or more random variables as input.
•lumped parameter - distributed parameter: Both properties are related to
systems of dynamic nature.
•Linear - nonlinear: Linear systems have the nice property that the principle of
superposition is valid.
 ❖ Properties of a system
[Link]
✓ A system is linear if the superposition property holds, that is, that linear combinations of
inputs lead to the same linear combinations of the outputs.
✓ A system with inputs x1 and x2 and corresponding outputs y1 and y2 is linear if:
ax1+bx2=ay1+by2 for any constants a and b.
Example of a linear system:
y(t)=10x(t)
Example of a nonlinear system:
y(t)=x(t)2
2. Causality
A causal system has outputs that only depend on current and/or previous inputs.
Example of a causal system:
y(t)=x(t)+x(t−1)
Example of a non-causal system:
y(t)=x(t)+x(t+1)
3. Stability
There are many types of stability, for this course, we first consider BIBO
(Bounded Input Bounded Output) stability.
A system is BIBO stable if, for all bounded inputs (∃BϵR,|x(t)|<B), the output is
also bounded (|y(t)|<∞)
4. Time Invariance
A system is time invariant if a shift in the time domain corresponds to the same
shift in the output.
Example of a time invariant system:
y1(t)=x1(t)↦y2(t−t0)=x2(t−t0)
Example of a time variant system:
y1(t)=sin(t)x1(t)↦y2(t−t0)=sin(t)x2(t−t0)
In the first example, y2 is the shifted version of y1. This is not true of the second
example.
5. Memory
A system with memory has outputs that depend on previous (or future) inputs.
•Example of a system with memory:
y(t)=x(t−π)
•Example of a system without memory:
y(t)=x(t)
6. Invertibility
An invertible system is one in which there is a one-to-one correlation between inputs and
outputs.
•Example of an invertible system:
y(t)=x(t)
•Example of a non-invertible system:
y(t)=|x(t)|
In the second example, both x(t) = -3 and x(t) = 3 yield the same result.
 Learning Outcome 1.2:
Transform a control system from Time
Domaine to S- Domaine
✓Transforming a control system from the time(t) domain to the s-domain is a
fundamental concept in control engineering.
1. Time Domain:
•In the time(t) domain, we analyze and describe system behavior using time(t)-
based signals. These signals represent how a system responds over time.
•Variables like input signals, output responses, and system states are expressed
as functions of time (e.g., x(t), y(t), u(t)).
•Differential equations and transfer functions are commonly used to model and
analyze systems in the time domain.
2.s-Domain (Laplace Domain):
•The s-domain is a mathematical tool that simplifies the analysis of linear time-
invariant (LTI) systems.
•It involves transforming time-based signals into a new domain using the
Laplace transform.
 •The Laplace transform converts a continuous-time signal x(t) into a complex function X(s),
where S is a complex variable.
•The Laplace transform provides a bridge between the time domain and the frequency domain.
3. Significance of the S-Domain:
•The LaPlace transform has several advantages:
•Solving Differential Equations: It simplifies solving linear differential equations by
transforming them into algebraic equations in the s-domain.
•Frequency Response: The s-domain allows us to analyze system behavior at different
frequencies.
•Stability Analysis: Stability properties (such as poles and zeros) become evident in the s-
domain.
•Transfer Functions: Transfer functions (which relate input to output) are expressed
directly in the s-domain.
•The s-domain provides a powerful framework for designing and analyzing control systems.
In summary, transforming a control system from the time(t) domain to the S-domain allows us to
work with algebraic equations and gain insights into system behavior across different frequencies.
❖ Description of Test Signal Functions
✓ Test signal means audio and video transmitted to make sure signals from a
Cable Television system is received by the subscribers or to test the quality
of signals received.
✓ In the realm of telecommunication and electrical circuits, a standard test
signal plays a crucial role.
✓ Four types of standard test signals help analyze and design control systems
by defining performance measures.
✓ Interestingly, the step function can be obtained by integrating the impulse
function, and similarly, other functions are derived from one another through
integration or differentiation.
✓ These interconnected functions are known as singularity functions.
1. Step Signal(u(t)): A signal with magnitude(A) one for time greater than
zero. The step signal imitate the sudden change characteristic of actual input
signal.
𝐴 𝑡≥0
u(𝒕) =ቊ
0 𝑡<0
𝐴
L 𝒖(𝒕) = U(𝒔)=
𝑆
 If A=1, the step signal is called unit step signal
Figure 1: Step Signal
2. Impulse Signal (𝜹(𝒕)) : A signal which has infinite(∞) magnitude at time equal to zero only.
The impulse signal imitates the sudden shock characteristic of actual input signal.

𝐴 𝑡=0
𝜹(𝒕) =ቊ
0 𝑡≠0
L 𝜹(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)=A
 If A=1, the impulse signal is called unit impulse signal.
Figure 2: Impulse Signal
3. Ramp Signal(r(t)): A signal whose magnitude increases same as time . The
ramp signal imitate the constant velocity characteristic of actual input signal.

𝐴𝑡 𝑡≥0
r(𝒕) =ቊ
0 𝑡<0
𝐴
L 𝒓(𝒕) = R(𝒔)=
𝑆2

If A=1, the ramp signal is called ramp signal.

Figure 3: Ramp Signal.
4. Parabolic Signal(p(t)) :A signal whose magnitude increases with the square of time .
It can be obtained by integrating unit ramp. The parabolic signal imitate the constant
acceleration characteristic of actual input signal.

𝐴𝑡 2
𝑡≥0
p(𝑡) =ቐ 2
0 𝑡<0
2𝐴
L 𝑝(𝑡) = P(𝑠)=
𝑆3
❖If A=1, the parabolic signal is called unit parabolic signal.
Figure 4: Parabolic Signal.
 Input r(t) R(s)

Step input A A/s

Ramp input At A/𝑆 2

Impulse input δ(t) 1

Parabolic input 𝐀𝐭 𝟐ൗ 𝐀ൗ
𝟐 𝐒𝟑
Conclusion: The typical test signals judge the performance and
working of a control system in the time domain analysis.
✓ These all have different graphs and different effects.
✓ These typical signals determine the behaviour and nature of a
dynamic system.
❖Description Laplace Transform Formula
Definition:
✓ The Laplace transform is a mathematical technique that converts a
function of a real variable, usually time, to a function of a complex
variable, usually frequency.
✓ It was invented by Pierre-Simon Laplace and developed by Oliver
Heaviside.
✓ The Laplace transform is useful for simplifying the solution of many
differential equations that describe physical processes.
✓ Laplace transform is the integral transform of the given derivative function
with real variable ‘t’ to convert into a complex function with variable ‘s’.
✓ The Laplace transform f(t) of a function is represented by L{f(t)} or F(s).
➢ Laplace transform formula: Integrate this product w.r.t time with limits
as zero and infinity. This integration results in Laplace transformation
of f(t), which is denoted by F(s).
∞ ∞ 𝒂
𝐟 𝐭 = 𝑭 𝑺 = 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) = ‫𝒇 𝟎׬‬ 𝒕 . 𝒆−𝒔.𝒕 . 𝒅𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ‫𝒆)𝒕(𝒇 𝟎׬‬−𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ‫𝒆)𝒕(𝒇 𝟎׬‬−𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒂→∞ 𝒂→∞

when, t ≥ 0, (s = σ + j ω).

F(s) = LaPlace transform

s = complex number
t = real number ≥ 0
t' = first derivative of the function f(t)
✓Laplace transform finds very wide applications in various areas of
physics, electrical engineering, control engineering, optics,
mathematics and signal processing.
❖Laplace Transform Table
An example of Laplace transform table has been made below used to
know about the Laplace transform of various common functions from
the following table .
Note: use an uppercase letter to indicate the Laplace transform, e.g.,
L(f; s) = F(s). The Laplace transform we defined is sometimes called
the one-sided Laplace transform.
Notice: important functions:
1. Limit:⇒ lim 𝑒 −𝑡 = 0
𝑡→+∞
⇒ lim 𝑒 𝑡 = 0
𝑡→−∞
2. Exponential: ⇒ 𝑒0 = 1
3. Integration(f(t)):
∞ 𝑎
⇒ න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑎→∞ 0

1 𝑘𝑡
𝑘𝑡
⇒ න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝐶
𝑘

𝑛
1
⇒ න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑛+1
𝑛+1
 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎
⇒ න 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎 න 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑛+1
𝑛+1

4. Power Rule:
➢ The general power rule derivative formula is given by:

𝑑 𝑡𝑛
⇒
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑛𝑡 𝑛−1 , for all t≥ 0, 𝑛 ∈ ℝ, where C is a
constant number.
➢ The general power rule integration formula is given
by:
𝑘𝑡
1 𝑘𝑡
න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝐶
𝑘
Examples: Find the Laplace transforms of the following
functions by evaluating the integral F(s).
1). 𝑓 𝑡 = 1, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
Solution: By using laplace transform formula,
f t = 𝐹 𝑆 = ℒ 𝑓(𝑡)
∞ 𝑎
−𝑠.𝑡 −𝑠𝑡
= න 𝑓 𝑡 .𝑒 . 𝑑𝑡 = lim න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑎→∞ 0
𝑎 −𝑠𝑡
= lim ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝑎→∞
 ∞ 𝑎
= ℒ(1)=𝐹 𝑠 = ‫׬‬0 1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡= lim ‫׬‬0 1. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎→∞
Let, u=-st, by using power rule,
u=−𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑢 −𝑠𝑡
⇒ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
⇒ = −𝑠 ∗ 1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
⇒ = −𝑠
𝑑𝑡
1 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑠𝑑𝑡, 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑, 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑑𝑢, substitute, u=-st, dt=− 𝑑𝑢,
𝑠 𝑠
in the integral,
1
‫ = 𝑡𝑑 𝑒 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑 𝑢 𝑒 ׬‬,
−𝑠𝑡
𝑠
 1 𝑘𝑡
Integrate the exponential function by applying, ‫׬‬ 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑘
1
‫׬‬ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 𝑢 +C, substitute back u=-st,
𝑠
1 −𝑠𝑡
⇒ න 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =− 𝑒 + 𝑐, 𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝑎 → ∞,
𝑠
∞
1 −𝑠𝑎 1 −𝑠
⇒න 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim − 𝑒 +𝐶 − − 𝑒 0 +𝐶
0 𝑎→∞ 𝑠 𝑠
∞ −𝑠𝑡 1
⇒ ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = − lim 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 − 𝑒 0 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 lim 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑠 𝑎→∞ 𝑥→∞

∞ −𝑠𝑡 1 1
⇒ ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
0−1 = − =
𝑠 𝑠
∞
−𝒔𝒕
𝟏
𝒇 𝒕 = 𝓛(𝟏) ⇒ න 𝒆 𝒅𝒕 = , 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝟎 𝒔
2). 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0,
Solution: By using laplace transform formula,
∞ ∞
f t = 𝐹 𝑆 = ℒ 𝑓(𝑡) = න 𝑓 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑠.𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 = lim න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑎→∞ 0
𝑎
= lim ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎→∞
∞ 𝑎
= ℒ(t)=𝐹 𝑠 = ‫׬‬0 𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡= lim ‫׬‬0 𝑡. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑎→∞
Let, 𝑣 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑒 , u(t)=t, by Using integration by parts,
−𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑢(𝑡) ′ −𝑠𝑡 1 −𝑠𝑡
u(t)=𝑡 ⇒ = 1, ⇒ 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑒 , 𝑣 𝑡 = − 𝑒 , substitute using
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
integration by parts,
 3. 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 (find the LaPlace transform)
Solution: The definition of the Laplace transform of a function f(t) is given by:
∞ −st
ℒ{f(t)} = ‫׬‬0 e f(t) dt
Put f(t)= eat.
∞ −st at
∴ ℒ{e } = ‫׬‬0 e e dt
at

𝑏
∞ −st +at ∞ −(s−a)t 𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡 𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑏
= ‫׬‬0 e dt = ‫׬‬0 e dt = lim = lim −
𝑏→∞ −(𝑠−𝑎) 0 𝑏→∞ −(𝑠−𝑎) −(𝑠−𝑎)
𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 ∞ 𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 0 1 𝟏
= lim − =0 − = ,
𝑏→∞ −(𝑠−𝑎) −(𝑠−𝑎) −(𝑠−𝑎) 𝒔−𝒂
𝒂𝒕 𝟏
Therefore, the Laplace transform of 𝒆 is
𝒔−𝒂
 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦
• The time function f(t) is obtained back from the Laplace
transform by a process called inverse Laplace
transformation and denoted by ℒ -1.

−1
𝐹 𝑠 =ℒ 𝐹 𝑠 =
Example 1 Find the inverse transform of each of the following.
6 1 4
𝐹 𝑠 = − +
𝑠 𝑠−8 𝑠−3
1 1 1
Solution: 𝑓 𝑡 = 6 − +4
𝑠 𝑠−8 𝑠−3
𝑓 𝑡 = 6 1 − 𝑒 8𝑡 + 4(𝑒 3𝑡 )
𝑓 𝑡 ⇒ 6− 𝑒 8𝑡 + 3𝑡
4𝑒 , for all t≥ 0
 6𝑠−5
2. F(s)= (find the inverse LaPlace transform)
𝑠 2 +7
Solution: Where, variable of function F(s) is s. So, by simplifying
the above expression.
7
6𝑠 7
= −5
𝑠2 𝑠 2 +7

𝟓
∴ 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝟔𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟕𝒕 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟕𝒕
𝟕
Disadvantages of the Laplace Transformation
Method
We can only use this method to solve differential
equations with known constants. If you do have an
equation without the known constants, then this
method is useless and you will have to find another
method.
❖ Mathematical Modelling of Control System
A mathematical model is a mathematical relation that describes
some real-life situation. Mathematical models are used to solve
many real-life situations like:
• launching a satellite.
• predicting the arrival of the monsoon.
• controlling pollution due to vehicles.
• reducing traffic jams in big cities.
➢Components of Mathematical Modelling of Control System
Components of Mathematical Model are variables or decision parameters;
constants and calibration parameters; input parameters, data; phase
parameters; output parameters; noise and random parameters.
There are various types of physical systems, namely we have:
[Link]
2. Mechanical
[Link]
[Link]
5. Thermal
Mathematical Modelling of Mechanical Systems
We have two types of mechanical systems. The mechanical system may be a
linear mechanical system or it may be a rotational mechanical type of system.

In a linear mechanical type of systems, we have three variables:

[Link], represented by ‘F’
[Link], represented by ‘V’
[Link] displacement, represented by ‘X’
And also we have three parameters:
[Link], represented by ‘M’
[Link] coefficient of viscous friction, represented by ‘B’
[Link] spring constant, represented by ‘K’
II. In a rotational mechanical type of systems we have three variables:
[Link], represented by ‘T’
[Link] velocity, represented by ‘ω’
[Link] displacement, represented by ‘θ’
And also we have two parameters :
[Link] of inertia, represented by ‘J’
[Link] coefficient of viscous friction, represented by ‘B’
Now let us consider the linear displacement mechanical system which is shown
below-
❖ The basic elements used for modeling mechanical translational
system.
✓ Mass M, Kg,
✓ Stiffness of spring K, N/m
❖ The basic element used for modeling mechanical rotational system is
✓ Moment of inertia J, Kg-m2/rad
❖ The analogous electrical elements in force voltage analogy for the
elements of mechanical translational system. The two types of
analogies for the mechanical system are
✓ Force voltage and
✓ Force current analogy
1. Force voltage Analog
[Link] (M) is analogous to inductance (L).
[Link] is analogous to voltage V.
[Link] (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
[Link] of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and
[Link] constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C)
2. Force current analogy
1. Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).
2. Force is analogous to current I.
3. Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
4. Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R.
5. Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L).
Mathematical Modelling of Electrical System
In an electrical type of system we have three variables –
[Link] which is represented by ‘V’.
[Link] which is represented by ‘I’.
[Link] which is represented by ‘Q’.
And also we have three parameters which are active and passive components:
[Link] which is represented by ‘R’.
[Link] which is represented by ‘C’.
[Link] which is represented by ‘L’.
▪ Generally, In mechanical systems, motion can be of different type
i.e., Translational, Rotational or Combination of both. The
equations governing such motion in mechanical systems are often
directly or indirectly governed by Newton’s laws of motion.
• Same way electrical systems are governed by Kirchhoff's Law.
The mathematical description of the dynamic characteristic of a
system is called as mathematical model of a system.
✓ The 4 steps of the mathematical modeling process are:
formulation, solution, interpretation and validation.
❖ Significance of mathematical modeling:
1. Control systems is the arrangement of physical elements and
that physical elements are analyzed to make governing
equations
2. Mathematical modeling helps in easy analysis of control
systems.
3. As mathematical model is in LaPlace domain it is easy to
analyze big systems also.
 Learning Outcome 1.3:
Represent a Control System with representation
techniques
❖ Transfer Function
➢ The transfer function of a system is defined as the s-domain ratio of the Laplace
transform of output to the Laplace transform of input where all the
initial conditions are zero.
➢ A transfer function represents the relationship between the output signal of a
control system and the input signal, for all possible input values.
➢ A transfer function is a mathematical function that models the output of a system
for each possible input1.
➢ It is used to represent the relationship between the input and output signals of a
control system.
➢ A transfer function is obtained by applying a Laplace transform to the differential
equations describing system dynamics, assuming zero initial conditions.
➢ A transfer function can be visualized using a block diagram.
 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝐶(𝑆)
𝑇 𝑆 = = G(S)
𝑅(𝑆)
Where,
T(S) = Transfer function of the system.
C(S) = output.
R(S) = Reference output.
G(S) = Gain.
❖ Methods of Obtaining a Transfer Function
There are major two ways of obtaining a transfer function for the control system.
The ways are:
I. Block Diagram Method
II. Signal Flow Graphs
I. Block diagram
✓ A block diagram is a visual representation of the control system that uses
simple, labeled blocks that represent single or multiple items, entities or
concepts, connected by lines to show relationships between input and output
signals of the entire system.
✓A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
Figure 1: Block
 ❖ Block Diagram Symbols and Basic Components
Symbol Name Function
Blocks Rectangular blocks in a block diagram represent operations in the system. It is usually
connected with two lines from left and right, and one of the lines carries the input
while the other gives the output.
Lines Lines in a bock diagram depicts the system process flow and the interrelationship of
components and operations. You can use a straight line to connect blocks and
arrowhead to represent the process flow.
Summation A cross inside a circle is the summation symbol in a block diagram. It is commonly
used in charts from engineering systems, and it sums two inputs together and gives a
single output.
Differentiator We use “S” in a small block as the differentiator symbol in a block diagram, & it
computes the rate of input and output in the system. You can also use it as a rate take
symbol by replacing the "S" with "rate".
Integrator We use the mathematical symbol for integration to illustrate an integrator in a block
diagram. You can use various shapes with the integration symbol to customize your
integrator.
❖Why are Block Diagrams Important?
▪ A Block Diagram is a fundamental way that hardware and
software developers utilize to describe these systems while
illustrating their workflows and processes.
▪ Electricians need them to represent systems and their shifting, for
example, the mechatronic systems in the trucking industry.
▪ They make it easier to represent complicated algorithms or flows
of details or communication among precise components, for
instance, in a mass production facility.
▪ A graphical representation is often easier to understand than a
textual representation.
❖ Advantages of Block Diagram Representation
✓ Very simple to construct block diagram for a complicated system
✓ Function of individual element can be visualized
✓Individual & Overall performance can be studied.
✓Over all transfer function can be calculated easily.
❖ Disadvantages of Block Diagram Representation
➢No information about the physical construction.
➢ Source of energy is not shown.
❖ Representation of a control system using block diagrams
▪ Basic Elements of block diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point.

R(s) – Laplace of reference input r(t)

C(s) – Laplace of controlled output c(t)
E(s) – Laplace of error signal e(t)
B(s) – Laplace of feed back signal b(t)
G(s) – Forward path transfer function
H(s) – Feed back path transfer function
 The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and
H(s). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the
direction of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.
I. Block: The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single
input and single output. The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output
Y(s) and the transfer function G(s).

G(s)=Y(s)/X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G(s)X(s)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.
II. Summing Point: comparing the different signals. The summing point is
represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more inputs
and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs
the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of
the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. The following figure shows the
summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A
and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B. i.e.,Y = A + B.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one
output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having
positive sign and B is having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the
output Y as the difference of A and B. Y = A + (-B) = A - B.
The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A,
B, C) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having
positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the summing point
produces the output Y as:Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
III. Take off points: point from which signal is taken for feed back. The take-off point is a
point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than one branch. That
means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more blocks,
summing points. In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input,
R(s) to two more blocks. When there is more than one block, and we want to apply the same
input to all the blocks, we use a take-off point. By the use of a take-off point, the same input
propagates to all the blocks without affecting its value. Representation of same input to more
than one block is shown in the below diagram.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the
inputs to the summing point.
Block diagram reduction techniques(Rules)
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.
•Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
•Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
•Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
•Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
•Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
•Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the
overall block diagram.
Example: Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us
simplify (reduce) this block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.
Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks
G3 and G4. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off
point after the block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram
is shown in the following figure.
Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is:

Y(s) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺 2 5 (𝐺3 + 𝐺4 )
=
R(s) (1+𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 ){1+(𝐺3 + 𝐺4 )𝐺5 𝐻3 }𝐺5 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺5 (𝐺3 + 𝐺4 )𝐻2
Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function
of the block diagram having multiple inputs.
•Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering
one input at a time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
•Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
•Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those
transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for
complicated systems. Because, we have to draw the (partially
simplified) block diagram after each step.
For serially connected blocks
When blocks are connected in series then the overall transfer function of all
the blocks is the multiplication of the transfer function of each separate block
in the connection. Suppose we have two blocks in cascade connection as
shown below:

Consider U(s) denotes the intermediate variable then we can say:

𝑈 s = 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺1 (𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌(𝑠)=𝑈(𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠)

Then,
𝑌(𝑠)=𝑋 𝑠 𝐺1 (𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠)

Consequently, we can replace two blocks with

different transfer functions into a single one having the
transfer function equal to multiplication of each transfer
function without altering the output.
For parallelly connected blocks
In case the blocks are connected parallelly then the transfer function
of the whole system will be the addition of the transfer function of
each block (considering sign). Suppose two blocks are connected
parallelly as given below:
So,
 So, two parallelly connected blocks can be replaced by a single
block with a summation of the transfer function of each block.
II. Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
✓ Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the variables of a set of linear algebraic equations. In the signal flow
graph(SFG), the transfer function is referred to as transmittance.
✓ SFGs provide a visual way to understand how signals flow within a system,
making them a valuable tool in control systems and other fields
❖ Characteristics of SFG
• SFG doesn't require any reduction technique or process.
• It represents a network in which nodes are used for the representation of system
variable which is connected by direct branches.
• SFG is a diagram which represents a set of equations.
• It consists of nodes and branches such that each branch of SFG having an arrow
which represents the flow of the signal.
• It is only applicable to the linear system.
❖ Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
A Signal Flow Graph (SFG) is a directed edge and node-based visual depiction of the
dynamics of a system. In this graphical representation. Nodes and branches are the basic
elements of signal flow graph.
I. Nodes represent system variables or signals.
There are three types of nodes — input node, output node and mixed node.
▪ Input Node − which has only outgoing branches.
▪ Output Node − which has only incoming branches.
▪ Mixed Node − which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example: Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.
•The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2,
y3 and y4.
•y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
•y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.
II. Branch: Branches (edges or arrows) indicate functional
connections between pairs of nodes.
✓ It is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has
both gain and direction. For example, there are four branches in
the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b,
c and -d.
Node as a summing point:
x1 = Summing point
x1 = x2+x3+x4
Node as a transmitting (outgoing) point:
x1 = x5+x6
❖The basic properties of signal flow graph are:
✓ Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems.
✓ It consists of nodes and branches.
✓A node adds the signal of all incoming branches and
transmits this sum to all outgoing branches.
✓Signals travel along branches only in the marked direction
and is multiplied by the gain of the branch.
✓The algebraic equations must be in the form of cause and
effect relationship.
 ❖ Transformation from block diagram to signal flow
graph
➢ Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow
graph.
i. Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
ii. Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
iii. Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the
branches in signal flow graph.
iv. Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two
nodes (but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as
one. For example, between summing points, between summing point and takeoff
point, between input and summing point, between take-off point and output.
Example: Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
✓ Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of
block diagram as input node R(s) and output node C(s) of
signal flow graph.
✓ Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are
labelled in the block diagram.
✓ There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes.
That is four nodes for four summing points, four nodes
for four take-off points and one node for the variable
between blocks G1 and G2.
The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.
❖ Mason’s Rule: it involves dividing a signal flow graph into several
independent loop gains and analyzing the input–output transfer function.
The existence of non-touching loops increases the complexity of the
formula. The relation between an input variable and an output variable of a
signal flow graph is given by Mason's Gain Formula.
❖ Mason’s gain formula
Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal flow graph. The gain
between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is
nothing but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by
using Mason’s gain formula. For determination of the overall system,
the gain is given by:
 𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑖 𝑃1 ∆1 +𝑃2 ∆2
𝑇= = =
𝑅(𝑠) ∆ ∆
Where,
C(s) is the output node
R(s) is the input node
T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
Pi is the ith forward path gain
Δ=1−(sum of all individual loop gains)
+(sum of gain products of all possible two nontouching loops) + [Sum of gain
products of all possible three non-touching loops] + .......
Δi is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the ith forward
path.
Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic
terminology involved here.

Path: It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of
branch arrows. It should not traverse any node more than once.

Examples−y2→y3→y4→y5,y2→y3→y4→y5andy5→y3→y2
Forward Path: is the path that exists from the input node to the output node.
Examples:y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and y1→y2→y3→y5→y6
Forward Path Gain: It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch
gains of the forward path.

Examples: abcdeabcde is the forward path gain

of y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and abge is the
forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y5→y6y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Loop: is the path that starts from one node and ends at the same node.
Hence, it is a closed path.

Examples − y2→y3→y2y2→y3→y2 and y3→y5→y3y3→y5→y3.

Loop Gain: is the product of branch gain which travels in the loop.
Examples:−bjbjistheloopgain of y2→y3→y2y2→y3→y2 and ghgh is
the loop gain of y3→y5→y3y3→y5→y3.
Non-touching Loops: These are the loops, which should not have any common node.
Examples: The loops, y2→y3→y2y2→y3→y2 and y4→y5→y4y4→y5→y4 are non-
touching.
❖ Some Specific Terms
•Input node: Node with only outgoing branches.
•Output node: Node with only incoming branches. In case this condition is not
met, an additional branch with unity gain can be introduced.
•Path: A traversal of connected branches as per the direction indicated by the
arrow on the branch such that no node is traversed more than once.
•Forward Path: A path connecting the input and the output node.
•Loop: A path which starts and ends at the same node.
•Non-touching loops: Loops with no common nodes.
•Path gain: Product of gains associated with each branch that is encountered in
traversing a path.
Example: draw the Signal Flow Diagram and determine C/R for the
block diagram shown in the figure.
❖ The signal flow graph of the above diagram is drawn below.
The gain of the forward paths
P1 = G1G2G3 ∆1 = 1
P2 = -G1G4 ∆2 = 1
Individual loops given by:
L1 = - G1G2H1
L2 = -G2G3H2
L3 = -G1G2G3
L4 = G1G4
L5 = G4H2
❖ Non touching Loops = 0
Construction of SFG and Mason Gain Formula
The SFG of a system is constructed by the following equations.
Example: Consider a system described by following sets of equations.
Where x1 is input and x5 is output.
Step1 - First step is to draw all the nodes.

Step2 - Draw the SFG for equation (1)

Step3 - Draw the SFG for equation (2)

Step4 - Draw the SFG for equation (3)

Step5 - Draw the SFG for equation (4)

Step6 - Now draw the complete signal flow graph with the help of the above graph.