Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 247

(c) Output current is 180° out of phase with the output voltage (v,). Therefore, input voltage
and output voltage are 180° out of phase.

10.6 Input/Output Phase Relationships

The following points regarding the input / output phase relationships between currents and voltages
for the various transistor configurations may be noted :
(i) For every amplifier type (CE, CB and CC), the input and output currents are in phase.
When the input current decreases, the output current also decreases and vice-versa.
(ii) Remember that common emitter (CE) circuit is the only configuration that has input and
output voltages 180° out of phase.
(iii) For both common base (CB) and common collector (CC) circuits, the input and output
voltages are in phase. If the input voltage decreases, the output voltage also decreases and vice-versa.
10.7 D.C. And A.C. Equivalent Circuits
In a transistor amplifier, both d.c. and a.c. conditions prevail. The d.c. sources set up d.c. currents and
voltages whereas the a.c. source (i.e. signal) produces fluctuations in the transistor currents and volt-
ages. Therefore, a simple way to analyse the action of a transistor is to split the analysis into two parts
viz. ad.c. analysis and an a.c. analysis. In the d.c. analysis, we consider all the d.c. sources at the same
time and work out the d.c. currents and voltages in the circuit. On the other hand, for a.c. analysis, we
consider all the a.c. sources at the same time and work out the a.c. currents and voltages. By adding
the d.c. and a.c. currents and voltages, we get the total currents and voltages in the circuit. For ex-
ample, consider the amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 10.8. This circuit can be easily analysed by
splitting it into d.c. equivalent circuit and a.c equivalent circuit.
+ Veco

SIGNAL Ry

[*
Fig. 10.8
(@) D.C. equivalent circuit. In the d.c. equivalent circuit of a transistor amplifier, only d.c.
conditions are to be considered i.e. 1t 1s presumed that no signal 1s applied. As direct current cannot
flow through a capacitor, therefore, all the capacitors look like open circuits in the d.c. equivalent
circuit. It follows, therefore, that in order to draw the equivalent d.c. circuit, the following two steps
are applied to the transistor circuit :
(a) Reduce all a.c. sources to zero.
(b) Open all the capacitors.
248 @ Principles of Hectronics
Applying these two steps to the circuit shown in Fig. 10.8, we get
the d.c. equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 10.9. We can easily calculate
the d.c. currents and voltages from this circuit.
(ii) A.C. equivalent circuit. In the a.c. equivalent circuit of a
transistor amplifier, only a.c. conditions are to be considered. Obvi-
ously, the d.c. voltage is not important for such a circuit and may be
considered zero. The capacitors are generally used to couple or bypass
the a.c. signal. The designer intentionally selects capacitors that are
large enough to appear as short circuits to the a.c. signal. It follows,
therefore, that in order to draw the a.c. equivalent circuit, the following
two steps are applied to the transistor circuit :
(a) Reduce all d.c. sources to zero (i.e. Vo = 0).
(6) Short all the capacitors.
Applying these two steps to the circuit shown in Fig. 10.8, we get the a.c. *equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 10.10. We can easily calculate the a.c. currents and voltages from this circuit.

L.
4a.
<

og 4 ‘

, Ry : :

Fig. 10.10
It may be seen that total current in any branch is the sum of d.c. and a.c. currents through that
branch. Similarly, the total voltage across any branch is the sum of d.c. and a.c. voltages across that
branch.
Example 10.4. For the transistor amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 10.8, determine :
(i) d.c. load and a.c. load
(ii) maximum collector-emitter voltage and collector current under d.c. conditions
(iii) maximum collector-emitter voltage and collector current when a.c. signal is applied
Solution. Refer back to the transistor amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 10.8.
(i) The d.c. load for the transistor is Thevenin’s equivalent resistance as seen by the collector
and emitter terminals. Thus referring to the d.c. equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 10.9, Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance can be found by shorting the voltage source (i.e. F'.) as shown in Fig. 10.11.
Because a voltage source looks like a short, it will bypass all other resistances except R. and R,
which will appear in series. Consequently, transistor amplifier will see a d.c. load of Ro + Ryie

* Note thatR, is also in parallel with transistor input so far as signal is concerned. Since R, is connected
from the base lead to }’.,. and I’... 1s at “ac ground”, R, is effectively connected from the base lead to
ground as far as signal is concerned.
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers m@ 249
dc. load = R.+R,
Referring to the a.c. equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 10.10, it is clear
that as far as a.c. signal 1s concerned,
resistance R, appears in parallel <— SHORT
with R,. In other words, transistor
RotRe
amplifier sees an a.c. load equal to
Ro || R, ie.
a.c. load, Ry. =Reo||R,
Ro Ry
Ro +R,
(ii) Referring to d.c. equivalent
circuit of Fig. 10.9, Fig. 10.11
Poo = Vor tle (Rc + Kz)
The maximum value of J, will occur when there is no collector current i.e. J. = 0.
Maximum Ju, = Veo
The maximum collector current will flow when I’'.,= 0.

Maximum J, =
Voc
Ro +R;
(iii) When no signal is applied, I’, and J, are the collector-emitter voltage and collector current
respectively. When a.c. signal is applied, it causes changes to take place above and below the oper-
ating point Q (i.e. V4, and I,.).
Maximum collector current due to a.c. signal = */,
Maximum positive swing of a.c. collector-emitter voltage
= 16x Rye
Total maximum collector-emitter voltage
= Veg + loRac
Maximum positive swing of a.c. collector current
= VoRac
Total maximum collector current
= Io + Ved Ric
10.8 Load Line Analysis
The output characteristics are determined experimentally and indicate the relation between I’, and
I. However, the same information can be obtained in a much simpler way by representing the
mathematical relation between J, and I”, graphically. As discussed before, the relationship between
Vo, and J, is linear so that it can be represented by a straight line on the output characteristics. This
is known as a load line. The points lying on the load line give the possible values of T’.,,and J, in the
output circuit. As in a transistor circuit both d.c. and a.c. conditions exist, therefore, there are two
types of load lines, namely ; d.c. load line and a.c. load line. The former determines the locus of J.
and J”, in the zero signal conditions and the latter shows these values when the signal is applied.
(i) d.c. load line. Jt is the line on the output characteristics of a transistor circuit which gives
the values of I, and V4, corresponding to zero signal or d.c. conditions.

* — For faithful amplification.

250 @ Principles of Hectronics
Consider the transistor amplifier shown in Fig. 10.12. In the absence of signal, d.c. conditions
prevail in the circuit as shown in Fig. 10.13 @). Referring to this circuit and applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law,
Vow = Veo loRe— leks
or Vor = Voo-Io Ret R,) i)
eo Tp o)

+ Veo
tT

ie Cr
|
Fig, 10.12
As for a given circuit, J’... and (R,. + R,) are constant, therefore, it is a first degree *equation and
can be represented by a straight line on the output characteristics. This is known as d.c. load line and
determines the loci of F’.,, and J, points in the zero signal conditions. The d.c. load line can be readily
plotted by locating two end points of the straight line.
+ Vec Ale

Veo |A
RA+R
C E
Inp=15 pA

Tz=10pA

M = Ip=SpA
[ \s YY
O L Veo CE

() (zi)

Fig. 10.13
The value of J”, will be maximum when J. = 0. Therefore, by putting J. = 0 in exp. (i), we get,
Max. Fog = Voo
This locates the first point B (OB = I’.,) of the d.c. load line.

This equation is known as load line equation since it relates the collector-emitter voltage (.,) to the
collector current (/..) flowing through the load.
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers @ 251
The value of J, will be maximum when I’, = 0.

Max. J. = Voc
Ro +R;
This locates the second pointA (OA = 1’. /R,. + R,) of the d.c. load line. By joining pointsA and
B, d.c. load line AB is constructed [See Fig. 10.13 Gad].
Alternatively. The two end points of the d.c. load line can also be determined in another way.
Vogtle RetRy) = Voo
Dividing throughout by I’. we have,

ue + — fe = | a (i)
Yoo Voc /Re + Rg)
The equation of a line having intercepts a and b on x-axis and y-axis respectively is given by ;
* + * =| Gi)
Comparing eqs. (7) and (ii), we have,
Intercept on x-axis = Voc

Intercept on y-axis = Feo

Ro +R;
With the construction of d.c. load line on the output characteristics, we get the complete informa-
tion about the output circuit of transistor amplifier in the zero signal conditions. All the points show-
ing zero signal J. and J’, will obviously lic on the d.c. load line. At the same time J, and I.,
conditions in the circuit are also represented by the output characteristics. Therefore, actual operat-
ing conditions in the circuit will be represented by the point where d.c. load line intersects the base
current curve under study. Thus, referring to Fig. 10.13 (7), if J, =5 pA is set by the biasing circuit,
then Q (i.e. intersection of 5 pA curve and load line) is the operating point.
(ii) a.c. load line. This is the line on the output characteristics of a transistor circuit which
gives the values of i, and Vog when signal is applied.
Referring back to the transistor amplifier shown in Fig. 10.12, its a.c. equivalent circuit as far as
output circuit is concerned is as shown 1n Fig. 10.14 (). To add a.c. load line to the output character-
istics, We again require two end points—one maximum collector-emitter voltage point and the other
maximum collector current point. Under the application of a.c. signal, these values are (refer to
example 10.4) :
Max. collector-emitter voltage = Io, +I-R4c. This locates the point C of the a.c. load line on
the collector-emitter voltage axis.

(i) 3)
Fig, 10.14
252 @ Principles of Hectronics

Maximum collector current

_
= J, +
Vor
Rac RR
where R,o‘AC = Ro||R,
Cc L
= >
Ro + R,

This locates the point D of a.c. load line on the collector-current axis. By joining points C and D,
the [Link] line CD 1s constructed [See Fig. 10.14 ()].
Example 10.5. For the transistor amplifier shown in Fig. 10.15, R, = 10 kQ, R, = 5 kQ, Ro =
1 kQ, Ry, = 2kQ and R, = 1 kQ.
(i) Draw d.c. load line (ii) Determine the operating point (iii) Draw a.c. load line.
Assume Vy, = 0.7 V.
Solution. (i) d.c. load line :
To draw d.c. load line, we require two end points viz maximum J’, point and maximum J, point.
+Voo=15V
v¥
A

T°
Fig. 10.15
Maximum J’, Voc = 15 V [See Art. 10.8]
This locates the point B (OB=15 V) of the d.c. load line.
V.
Maxi
omI, = fc _ =
“CRE R IF
+ 2)KQ = Sma [See Art. 10.8]
This locates the pointA (OA = 5 mA) of the d.c. load line. Fig. 10.16 (i) shows the d.c. load line AB.
Alo Alo

SmAgA 19.25 mA 4D

2.15 mA

lL >
y Cc
2° > vV
O 855V sy 0 9.62 V
() (ii)
Fig. 10.16
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers M@ 253
(ii) Operating point Q. The voltage across R, (= 5 kQ ) is *5 Vie. 1,=5 V.
Now IF, = VeptipRe

l= V, —Voer _ G-07)V
= 2.15mA
zB R; 2 kQ
Ia = [yg = 2.15mA
Now Vor = Voo —I[e(Ret Rp = 15-2.15mAx3kQ
= 855 V
Operating point QO is 8.55 V, 2.15 mA. This is shown on the d.c. load line.
(tii) a.c. load line. To draw a.c. load line, we require two end points viz. maximum collector-
emitter voltage point and maximum collector current point when signal is applied.

xl

—_—
[Link], Rug = RollR, = = 05kQ
+1
Maximum collector-emitter voltage —

= VortloRac [See example 10.4]

= 8554+2.15mA x0.5kQ2 = 9.62 volts
This locates the point C (OC = 9.62 V) on the va, axis.

Maximum collector current = Jo + VadRac

2.15 + (8.55 V/0.5 kQ) = 19.25 mA
This locates the point D (OD = 19.25mA) on the i,, axis. By joining points C and D, a.c. load line
CD is constructed [See Fig. 10.16 Ga].
Example 10.6. /n the transistor amplifier shown in Fig. 10.15, Ro = 10 kQ, R, = 30kQ and Vag
= 20V7 The values R, and R, are such so as to fix the operating point at 10V; ImA. Draw the d.c. and
a.c. load lines. Assume Ry is negligible.
Solution. d.c. load line. For drawing d.c. load line, two end points viz. maximum
Vog point and maximum J, point are needed. Maximum J’, = 20 V. This locates the point
B (OB = 20V) of the d.c. load line on the I’,,, axis.
Voc 20
Maximum J, = —+_— = —— =2mA
R.+R; 10kQ “"
This locates the pointA (OA = 2 mA) on the J, axis. By joining pointsA and B, the d.c. load line
AB 1s constructed (See Fig. 10.17).
a.c. load line. To draw a.c. load line, we require two end points viz maximum collector-emitter
voltage point and maximum collector current point when signal is applied.
10x30 = 75k2
[Link], Ryo = RellR, = yo~gq
Maximum collector-emitter voltage
=
Vow +loRac
=
10+1mAx7.5kQ = 10+7.5 = 17.5V
This locates the point D (OD = 17.5 V) on the v,, axis.
Maximum collector current = [.+Vo/Rijc
= 1mA+10V/7.5kQ = 1mA+1.33mA = 2.33mA
* — Voltage across series combination of R, and R, 1s 15 V. Applying voltage divider theorem, voltage across
R,=5V.
254 @ Principles of Hectronics
This locates the point C (OC = 2.33 mA) on thei, axis. By joining points C and D, a.c. load line
CD is constructed (See Fig. 10.17).

2.33 mA\C

2mA

ImAP---~--~ I
d.c. LOAD LINE
I
I
I
I
I
l
l >

O 10V 17.5 V 20V CE

ry

Fig. 10.17
Comments. The reader may see that the operating point lies on both a.c. and d.c. load lines. Itis
not surprising because signal is a.c. and it becomes zero after every half-cycle. When the signal is
zero, we have the exact d.c. conditions. Therefore, key point to keep in mind is that the point of
intersection of d.c. and a.c. load lines 1s the operating point O.
Example 10.7. In a transistor amplifier, the operating point O is fixed at 8V, lmA, When a.c.
signal is applied, the collector current and collector-emitter voltage change about this point. During
the positive peak of signal, i. = 1.5 mA and Va, = 7 V and during negative peak, i. = 0.5mA and vay
= 9I. Show this phenomenon with the help of a.c. load line.

ic (mA)
A

Fig. 10.18
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 255
Solution. Fig. 10.18 shows the whole process. When no signal is applied, vo, = 8 V and i, =
ImA. This is represented by the operating point Q on the a.c. load line. During the positive half-
cycle of a.c. signal, i, swings from | mA to 1.5 mA and v,, swings from 8 V to 7 V. This is repre-
sented by point A on the a.c. load line. During the negative half-cycle of the signal, i. swings from
1 mA to 0.5 mA and v,,,, swings from 8 V to 9 V. This is represented by the point B on the a.c. load
line.
The following points may be noted :
(i) When ac. signal is applied, the collector current and collector-emitter voltage variations
take place about the operating point Q.
(ii) When a.c. signal is applied, operating point moves along the a.c. load line. In other words,
at any instant of a.c. signal, the co-ordinates of collector current and collector-emitter voltage are on
the a.c. load line.

10.9 Voltage Gain

The basic function of an amplifier is to raise the strength of an a.c. input signal. The voltage gain of
the amplifier is the ratio of a.c. output voltage to the a.c. input signal voltage. Therefore, in order to
find the voltage gain, we should consider only the a.c. currents and voltages in the circuit. For this
purpose, we should look at the a.c. equivalent circuit of transistor amplifier. For facility of reference,the
a.c, equivalent circuit of transistor amplifier is redrawn in Fig. 10.19.

i.

lp
; , > Re Ry, V out

V,,(~) SIGNAL - : *

Fig. 10.19
It is clear that as far as a.c. signal is concerned, load R, appears in parallel with R,. Therefore,
effective load for a.c. is given by :
RoxXR
a.c. load, Rye = Re||R, = RoR
c TAY
Output voltage, F’,, = i,Ruc
Input voltage, J’, = i,R,,
Voltage gain, A, = I/7;,
_ i. Rac _ Bx Kuc [=]

i, Rin Rin ‘sy

Incidentally, power gain is given by;
2
A = ‘e Rac _ B? x ac
, i, Rn R, n
256 @ Principles of Hectronics
Example 10.8. In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.20, find the voltage gain. Given that
B = 60 and input resistance R,, = 1 kQ.

+10V

R, =0.5kQ

SIGNAL
ut]

Fig. 10.20
Solution. So far as voltage gain of the circuit is concerned, we need only R,., Band R, n’

Effective load, Ryo = Re||R;,

— RoXR, | 2x05 _
Re +R, 2405 © 04k
Ric _ 60X0.4kQ 44
Voltage gain Bx
R, in 1kQ ~

Example 10.9. In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.20, ifRo = 10 kQ, R, = 10 kQ, R,,, = 2.5 kQ, B =
100, find the output voltage for an input voltage of ImV'r.m.s.

RoxR, _ 10x10
ion.
Solution i
Effective load, Ryo = R+R, = 10+10 = 5kQ

. 5kQ
Voltage gain = Bx :
AC = 100 x > 5kO = 200

Vout 200
or WE =
Vin
Vig = 200xT,, = 200x1mV = 200mV
Example 10.10. In a transistor amplifier, when the signal changes by 0.02V; the base current
changes by 10 wA and collector current by ImA. If collector load Ro = 5 kQ and
R, = 10 kQ, find: (i) current gain (ii) input impedance (iii) a.c. load (iv) voltage gain
(v) power gain.
Solution. Al,z= 10 pA, Alo =
ImA, Al,,=0.02 V, Re =5kQ, Rp= 10 kQ
Al 1mA
(i) Current gain, B = MN, = 10 pA = 100
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 257
Mon _ 0.02V
i Input impedance,R, = = = 2kO

. RoxXR 5x10
(iii) a.c. load, Ryo = R.+R, = 5410 = 3.3kQ

. _ Ryo _ 3.30 _
(iv) Voltage gain, A, = Bx = 100 x == = 165

(v) Power gain, A, = current gain x voltage gain = 100 x 165 = 16500

Example 10.11. Jn Fig. 10.21, the transistor has B = 50. Find the output voltage if input
resistance R,,, = 0.5 kQ.
+30V

2 3kQ
10 kQ 3 Ce

Cn |
} |
IT
6kQ Vout

1mvV — |
(r.m.s.) 2 ai 3kQ .

Fig. 10.21
Solution. B = 50, R,, = 0.5kQ

R~XR 3x6
a.c. load, Rac = Ro || R; = R.+R, = 346 = 2kQ

Voltage gan = BxR,/R,, = 50x 2/0.5 = 200

or Vout
7 = 200
in

Output voltage, I”, = 200xT’,, = 200 x (1 mV) = 200mV

Example 10.12. Fig. 10.22 shows a transistor circuit. The manufacturer of the circuit shows
that collector potential is to be + 6V: The voltage measured at point B by a technician is found to be
+ 490. Is the circuit operating properly ?
Solution. The voltage at point B is equal to the voltage across R,. Now total voltage I’, across
the series combination of R, and R, is 6 V. Therefore, using voltage divider method, we have,

Ve Voltage across R,
R, ]
= xV, = ——x6 = 2
R, +R, p 1+2 Vv
258 @ Principles of Hectronics

O
6+16V

Fig. 10.22
The circuit is not operating properly. It is because the voltage at point B should be 2 I instead of
i

10.10 A.C. Emitter Resistance

The ac or dynamic resistance of emitter-base junction diode of a tran-
sistor 1s called ac emitter resistance. It is defined as the change in
base-emitter voltage divided by change in corresponding emitter
current [See Fig. 10.23] i.e. O > — VRE
— AV ig AV 56
Rae AT
zB Fig. 10.23
For instance, suppose an ac base voltage change of 1 mV pro-
duces an ac emitter current change of 50 pA. Then emitter diode has an ac resistance of
_ ImV
Rie = s0ud 70%

10.11 Formula For AC Emitter Resistance

It can be shown mathematically that the ac resistance of emitter diode is given by ;
25 mV
Ry = I,
where J, = dc emitter current (= I’,/R,) at Q point
Note the significance of this formula. It implies that ac emitter resistance can be found simply by
substituting the quiescent value of emitter current into the equation. There is no need to have the
characteristics available. It is important to keep in mind that this formula is accurate only for small
signal operation. It is a usual practice to represent ac emitter resistance by r,’.
, 25mV
re = lp

The subscript e indicates emitter. The lower case r is used to indicate an ac resistance. The
prime shows that it is an internal resistance.
Example 10.13. Determine the ac emitter resistance for the transistor circuit shown in Fig.
10.24.
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 259

40 kOS R,

| I
|

SILICON -
10kQ Sn,
2k SR, | é.

Fig. 10.24

Solution. Voltage across R, V, = ec - _10 xl0 =2V

vee R,+R, 7 40+10
Voltage acrossR,, Vi, = V,-Vyp = 2-07 = 13V
; V, 13V
Emitter current, J, = —= = —-— = 065mA
ER, -2kQ
25mV 25 mV
AC emitter resistance, r, =
I, =
0.65mA 38-462
10.12 Voltage Gain of CE Amplifier
The voltage gain (4,,) of an amplifier is equal to a.c. output voltage (v,,,) divided by a.c. input voltage
(v,,) L@. A, =Vou/Vin We have already seen that voltage gain of a CE amplifier is given by;
R
Voltage gain,A, = B x R ... for unloaded amplifier
in

B x
Rac
R for loaded amplifier
“a
Remember that R ,< ~ Re ||R;
The above formula forA, can be used if we know the values of R, (or R,,), B and R,,. Generally,
all these values are not known. In that case, we can find the value of A, in terms of total a.c. collector
resistance and total a.c. emitter resistance. For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.25 (with C,, connected
across R,,), it can be proved that the voltage gain is given by ;

Voltage gain, A, ’ ... for unloaded amplifier

Rac
f ... for loaded amplifier
Ne
10.13 Voltage Gain of Unloaded CE Amplifier
Fig. 10.25 shows the circuit of unloaded CE amplifier (i.e. no load R, 1s connected to the circuit).
260 @ Principles of Hectronics
Note that emitter bypass capacitor C,, is connected in parallel with emitter resistance R,. The
capacitor C’, acts as a *short to the a.c. signal so that it bypasses the a.c. signal to the ground. There-
fore, the emitter 1s effectively at a.c. ground. It is important to note that C,, plays an important role in
determining the voltage gain (A,) of the CE amplifier. If itis removed, the voltage gain of the ampli-
fier is greatly reduced (soon you will see the reason for it).

+ Voc
9
ul

Fig. 10.25

Re
Voltage gain, A, = ,
Ke

where R, = accollector resistance

r. = ac emitter resistance = 25 mV// iF

. C

¢ er
m-- oe

@:
¥
I at
,
Ve
Vv

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
OF TRANSISTOR

(i) (ii)
Fig. 10.26

* The size of C; is so selected that it offers negligible reactance to the frequencies handled by the amplifier
(See Example 10.2).
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 261
Derivation. Fig. 10.25 shows the common emitter amplifier. The ac equivalent circuit of the
amplifier is shown in Fig. 10.26. (/). Replacing the transistor by its *equivalent circuit, we get the
circuit shown in Fig. 10.26 (ii). Note that current source is still connected between the collector and
base terminals while the diode between the base and emitter terminals. Further, the input current is
the base current (,) while the output current is still 7,.
Note that input voltage (J’,,) is applied across the diode and r,’. Assuming the diode to be ideal
(so that it can be replaced by a wire), the ac emitter current is given by :

i,- Ir in
i
@€
ros oy ;
or Vn i,r, . (i)
Assuming i, = i,, we have,

Vout = iRo=i,Re
. V iR R
Voltage gain, A, = M4 = ££ = —©
Vin LY, e re

R
or A, = e
r,

where Re = total a.c. collector resistance

r,” = total ac. emitter resistance

Fig. 10.27 shows the simple a.c. model of CE amplifier with C,, con-
nected across R,. Note that C,, behaves as a short so that RK, 1s cut out
from the emitter circuit for a.c. signal. Therefore, as for as a.c. signal is
concerned, the total a.c. emitter resistance is 7,’.
Voltage gain for loaded amplifier. Fig. 10.28 () shows a part of a.c. equivalent circuit of the
OV a.c.

Fig, 10.28
* The transistor equivalent circuit contains three components wiz.,
(7) A resistor r, which represents ac emitter resistance.
(i7) A diode which represents the emitter-base junction of the transistor.
(tii) Accurrent source which represents the current being supplied to R..from the collector of the transistor.
262 @ Principles of Hectronics
CE amplifier. Note that load RK, is connected to the circuit. Remember that for a.c. analysis, }’..=OV
ie. at ground. Since both R, and R, are connected to the collector on one side and ground on the
other, the two resistors are in *parallel as shown in Fig. 10.28 (i).

; RoR,
Total a.c. collector resistance, Ryo = Ro | R,= 57
Ro t+ R,
Total a.c. emitter resistance = 7
R
Voltage gain,A, = a
@

10.14 Voltage Gain of CE Amplifier Without C,

When we remove the emitter bypass capacitor from the CE amplifier
shown in Fig. 10.25, the voltage gain of the circuit is greatly reduced.
The reason is simple. Without the emitter bypass capacitor C,, the emit-
ter is no longer at the ac ground as shown in Fig. 10.29. Therefore, for
the a.c. signal, both 7) and R, are in series. As a result, the voltage gain
of the amplifier becomes :
; R .
Voltage gain,A, = ——— ... for unloaded amplifier
r+R,

=
R
——4C_ __ for loaded amplifier
-
r+,

Example 10.14. For the amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 10.30,

find the voltage gain of the amplifier with (i) C,, connected in the circuit
(ii) C,, removed from the circuit.

+Vec=20V

R, 2 150kO 3 Ro=12 kQ

* — Note that C,. behaves as a short for a.c. and is replaced by a wire in the two a.c. circuits.
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 263
In order to find D.C. J, we shall proceed as under :
Voc 20
C. voltage across R,, 1’,7
D.C. = R+R, xR, 2 ~= =
150+ 20 X20 = 2.35 V

D.C. voltage acrossR,, Vy = F,—-Vpy = 2.35-0.7 = 1.65 V

Ve 1.65V
D.C. emitter current, J, = R, = 20KO 0.75 mA

25mV 25mV
AC emitter resistance, r,° = = —— = 33.39
I 0.75 mA
(i) With C, connected
Re 12 kQ
Voltage gain, A, = r - 33307 360

(i) Without C,
Ro 12 kQ
Voltage gain,A, = r+R, ~ 33304+22kQ~ 5.38

What a difference the emitter bypass capacitor C, makes ! With C, connected, A, = 360 and
when C’, is removed, the voltage gain goes down to 5.38.
Example 10.15. [fin the above example, a load of 6 kQQ is connected (with C,, connected) to the
collector terminal through a capacitor, what will be the voltage gain of the amplifier?
Solution. Amplifiers are used to provide ac power to the load. When load R, is connected to the
collector terminal through a capacitor, the total ac resistance of collector changes to :
12x6
Ric = RellR,= 12kQ||6kQ= 146 = 4kQ

The value of ac emitter resistance remains the same.

; _ Ric — 4kQ
Voltage gain, A, = y’ 3330 > 120
€

Thus voltage gain of the amplifier is reduced from 360 to 120 when load is connected to the
circuit.
Comments. This example shows the fact that voltage gain of the amplifier 1s reduced when load
1s connected to it. Conversely, if the load is removed from an amplifier, the voltage gain will increase.
If a load goes open circuit, the effect will be the same as removing the load entirely. Thus the primary
symptom of an open load in an amplifier is an increase in the voltage gain of the circuit.
Example 10.16. For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.31, find (i) a.c. emitter resistance (ii) voltage
gain (iii) d.c. voltage across both capacitors.
Solution.
(4) Inorder to find a.c. emitter resistance 1,’ , we shall first find D.C. emitter current J _- 10 find
Tz, We proceed as under :
, Vv. ce _ 9 _
D.C. voltage acrossR,,J, = RoR xR, = 740 430 * 2" =1V
D.C. voltage across Ry, Vp = V5-Vap=1V-0.7V
2 =0.3V
V,
D.C. emitter current, J, = R. =93* =0.1mA
E
25mV_ 25mV
Now A.C. emitter resistance, 7,’
e I, O1mA
264 @ Principles of Hectronics
tVoc=t+9V

aS 20 kQ Res 20 kQ

— ()
P|

a. ka se

Fig. 10.31
Ro _ 20kQ
7) Voltage gan,A, = 7 =
r 2502
a

(iii) The d.c. voltage across input capacitor is equal to the d.c. voltage at the base of the transistor
which is }’, = 1V. Therefore, d.c. voltage across C,,, is 1V.
Similarly, d.c. voltage across C,,= d.c voltage at the emitter = 1, = 0.3V.
Example 10.17. For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.32, find (i) the d.c. bias levels (ii) d.c. voltages
across the capacitors (tii) a.c. emitter resistance (iv) voltage gain and (v) state of the transistor.

Voc=tl5V

40kQ = R,

Fig. 10.32
Solution.
(i) D.C. bias levels. The d.c. bias levels mean various d.c. currents and d.c. voltages

D.C. Voltage across R,,, } — R, +R, xR, 2 ~= 70410 10 =3V

D.C. base voltage = J,=3V

D.C. voltage acrossRp, Vp = V,-Vp_g=3V-0.7V =2.3V
I"
D.C. emitter current, J, = R, 2.3V
fife’!
1kQ = 2.3mA
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers M@ 265
D.C. collector current, J, = J,=2.3 mA
D.C. base current, J, = I./B = 2.3 mA/100 = 0.023 mA
D.C. collector voltage, V7, = Voo-IeRe
= 15V-2.3mA x 2kQ=10.4V
Therefore, all d.c. bias levels stand calculated.
(ii) D.C. voltage acrossC,, = 1,=3V
D.C. voltage acrossC, = 1,=2.3V
D.C. voltage acrossC, = 1.=104V
25mV _ 25mV
(iti) a.c. emitter resistance, r, = I, 7 3mA = 10.99

(iv) Total a.c. collector resistance is given by ;

Rye = RoR, = eke = 2%! 0.667 ka

RaotR, 241
; _ Ryc _ 0.667 kQ _
Voltage gain,A, = v 09Q. = 61.2

(v) As calculated above, I, = 10.4V and I’, = 2.3V. Since J’,> V’;, the transistor is in active
state.
Example 10.18. An amplifier has a voltage gain of 132 and B = 200. Determine the power gain
and output power of the amplifier if the input power is 60 UW.
Solution.
Power gain, A p = current gain x voltage gain
= BxA,=200 = 132
= 26400
Output power, Po, = A, x P., = (26400) (60 UW) = 1.584 W
Example 10.19. For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.33, determine (i) the current gain (ii) the
voltage gain and (iii) the power gain. Neglect the a.c. emitter resistance for the transistor.

+ Voc

27 kQ 3 R,

Tz = 200 pA
Vi,° >

13 kQ 3 Ry

. Fig. 10.33
Solution. In most practical circuits, the value of a.c. emitter resistance rn, for the transistor is
generally quite small as compared to R, and can be neglected in circuit calculations with reasonable
accuracy,
266 @ Principles of Hectronics
() I, = Ig-Ip = 10mA-—200yA=9.8mA
Laut 4c 9-8mA
Current gain,A, = B= I, =Tp ~200HA 49

Re _ 4.7kQ
(ii) Voltage gain, A, = Re 7 9kQ =2-14

(iti) Power gain, A, = A,xA,=49 x 2.14=105

10.15 Input Impedance of CE Amplifier

When one CE amplifier is being used to drive another, the
input impedance of the second amplifier will serve as the load
resistance of the first. Therefore, in order to calculate the
voltage gain (A,) of the first amplifier stage correctly, we must Z in (base)

calculate the input impedance of the second stage. Z

The input impedance of an amplifier can be found by
using the ac equivalent circuit of the amplifier as shown in R, SILICON

Fig. 10.34.
Zin = R, [RoI] Zin cease) = =

where Zi, — input impedance of the amplifier Fig. 10.34

in (base) = put impedance of transistor base

Now Z in (base) = *B re

The input impedance [Z,,] 1s always less than the input impedance of the base [Z,,7,4s0)]-

Example 10.20. Determine the input impedance of the amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 10.35.

i ; i, . ; ,
Zinlbase) ~ > = a Since -& is approximately equal to B, Z,, 4452)~ Bre.
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 267
Voltage acrossR,, V3, = V,-Vp, = 7.5-0.7 = 75V
V, 7T.5V
Emitter current, J, = R - 73h0 7 1mA
E .
AC emitter resistance, 7, = 25mV/, = 25mV/lmA = 25Q

Z in (base) = Br, = 200x25

= 5x10°Q = 5kQ
Zn in = R,|R|Z in (base)
= 45kQ|| 15kQ||5kQ
= 3.45kQ
10.16 Voltage Gain Stability
One important consideration for an amplifier is the stability of its voltage gain. An amplifier should
have voltage gain values that are stable so that the output of the circuit is predictable under all normal
conditions. In a standard CE amplifier, the entire d.c. emitter resistance R,, is bypassed by the bypass
emitter capacitor C,. Therefore, the total a.c. emitter resistance is r,. The voltage gain of such an
amplifier at no-load 1s given by ;
Ro ,_ 25mV
Voltage gain,A, = —> where Fr, =
“OK Ty
The voltage gain of a standard CE amplifier is quite large. However, the drawback of the circuit
is that its voltage gain changes with emitter current /,,, temperature variations and transistor replace-
ment. For example, if emitter current /,, increases, the a.c. emitter resistance r, decreases. This changes
the voltage gain of the amplifier. Similarly, when the temperature varies or when a transistor 1s re-
placed, the a.c. current gain B changes. This will also result in the change in voltage gain. In order to
stabilise the voltage gain, the emitter resistance KR, is partially bypassed by C,,. Such an amplifier is
called a swamped amplifier.

I " . [ '

Standard CE Amplifier Swamped Amplifier

(i) (ii)
Fig. 10.36
Fig. 10.36 (i) shows the emitter leg of a standard CE amplifier while Fig. 10.36 (ii) shows the
emitter leg of swamped amplifier. In swamped amplifier, the resistance R, is split into two parts viz.
R,, and R,5. Only Rz, is bypassed by C,, while R,,, is not.

10.17 Swamped Amplifier

Fig. 10.37 shows the circuit of a swamped amplifier. Note that d.c. emitter resistance R,, 1s divided
into two parts viz. R,, and R,. Only resistance R,,. is bypassed by the capacitor C,, while resistance
268 @ Principles of Hectronics
R x, isnot. Thismethod swamps or minimises the effect of r; on the voltage gain without reducing the
voltage gain too much. Now the total a.c. emitter resistance is (7; +R,,) instead of 7) as in a standard
CE amplifier. Therefore, the voltage gain of a swamped amplifier at no-load becomes :
Ro
Voltage gain, A, =
rt+Rpy

——

Lt Cc E

Fig. 10.37

If Ry, 2 10 r,, then the effect of is almost negligible and the voltage gain is given by ;
R
A, =
Rr.
Fl
Therefore, the voltage gain is essentially independent of / or it is reasonably stabilised.
Effect of swamping on Z;,, gasey The Zin gasey With Rg completely bypassed is Z;,, gase) = Br.
When the emitter resistance 1s partially bypassed, the portion of the resistance that is unbypassed (i.e.
Rz,) is seen by the a.c. signal and appears in series with 7; . Therefore, for swamped amplifier,

Zin (base) = B (% + Rey)

Example 10.21. Determine the value of voltage gain (A,) for the swamped amplifier shown in
Fig. 10.38. What will be Z,, (base Or this circuit ?
Solution. In order to find voltage gain (A4,), we first determine D.C. emitter current /,, and then
a.c. emitter resistance 7; . The value of J, can be determined as under :

. Vee __ 10
D.C. voltage across R,, 17, = p q +R, xR, = 18447; X4.7 =21V
D.C. voltage across Ry, Vp = V,-Vp,=2.1V-0.7V=14V

_ Va L4V _
D.C. emitter current,/, = Ra + Res -3000+9000 > 1.16mA

25mV_ 25mV
[Link] resistance, 7, I, L.lémA ~2!98
| Re __-15kQ
Voltage gain, A, = ER, 21.52+300Q ~ +66
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 269
Input impedance of transistor base is given by ;
Zin (basey = B (4 +R) = 150 (21.5Q + 300Q) = 48.22 kQ

4.7kQ

Fig. 10.38
Example 10.22. Determine the change in voltage gain for the amplifier in example 10.21 when

To doubles in value.
/

Solution.
Ro
Voltage gain,A, = -
rt+Ryy

When * doubles, the value of A, becomes :

Ro 1.5kQ
A, v = 9 5 7
2r,+ Ry = 2*2152+43002 = 4.37

Change in gain =4.66—4.37 =0.29

Therefore, percentage change from the original value
4.66 — 4.37 100 = 0.29
= —"x —
4.66 4.66 x 100 = 6.22%
6.22% (decrease)
!

Consequently, the change in A, is only 6.22% from the original value. In an amplifier that is not
swamped, doubling the value of 7 would cause the value of A, to change (decrease) by *50%. Thus
the voltage gain (4) of the amplifier becomes more stable by swamping the emitter circuit.
Example 10.23. Fig. 10.39 shows the circuit ofa **standard CE amplifier. The emitter circuit
of this amplifier is swamped as shown in Fig. 10.40. Find :
() input impedance of transistor base [i.€. Zin, ase)/ for each circuit.
(it) input impedance (Z,,) for each circuit.

R R
Original A, = a ; Final A= 37 . Obviously, a change of 50% from the original value.

Remember that in a standard CE amplifier, the emitter resistance R,, is completely bypassed by the capaci-
tor C,. E
270 @ Principles of Hectronics
Voc =+10V Veo =+10V

1lOkQS R Roe 4kQ

Fig. 10.39 Fig. 10.40

Solution. Both the circuits have the same value of a.c. emitter resistance 1). Therefore, follow-
ing the standard procedure for finding r) gives us a value of *25Q for both circuits.
@) Lin (base)
For the standard CE amplifier shown in Fig. 10.39, we have,
Zin (base) = Bro = 200 x 25Q=5kQ
For the swamped amplifier shown in Fig. 10.40, we have,

Zin (base) = BC, + Ray)

= 200 (25 + 210 Q) = 47000Q = 47 kQ
(ii) Z,,
For the standard CE amplifier shown in Fig. 10.39, we have,
Zin in = RNR MZ in (base)
= 10kQ|| 2.2 kQ | 5kQ = 1.33 kQ
For the swamped amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 10.40, we have,
Lin = R, | R, | Zin (base)
= 10kQ | 2.2. kQ | 47 kQ = 1.74 kQ
Note that swamping increases the input impedance (Z,,,) of the amplifier. This reduces the
amplifier’s loading effects on a previous stage.
Example 10.24. Find the voltage gain for both circuits of example 10.23.
Solution.
For the standard CE amplifier shown in Fig. 10.39, the voltage gain (4,) is given by ;
Ro _
A, = TF 350 = 160
@

For the swamped amplifier shown in Fig. 10.40, the voltage gain (A,) is given by ;

* yas2 R +R, * =O
1042.2 x22 <1 8V i
51, =1y—Vgp= 18V—0.7V=11V
eas
Vp av , mV _25mV
le"R, 1ikQ 1M™A
E
% te 7 E
ImA >
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 271
Ro 4kKQ 4k
Ay = FER, 25Q+210Q 235Q 717
The following points may be noted ;
(i) The two circuits are identical for d.c. analysis purposes. Both have a total of 1.1. kQ dic.
resistance in their emitter circuits.
(ii) For a standard CE amplifier, the total a.c. emitter resistance is r’. When this amplifier is
swamped, the total a.c. emitter resistance is increased to (ri +R A):
(iii) Swamping reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier. However, the gain of a swamped ampli-
fier is more stable than that of a comparable standard CE amplifier.

10.18 Classification Of Amplifiers

The transistor amplifiers may be classified as to their
usage, frequency capabilities, coupling methods and
mode of operation.
(i) According to use. The classifications of am-
plifiers as to usage are basically vo/tage amplifiers and
power amplifiers. The former primarily increases the
voltage level of the signal whereas the latter mainly
increases the power level of the signal.
(ii) According to frequency capabilities. Ac-
cording to frequency capabilities, amplifiers are clas-
sified as audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers Radio amplifiers
etc. The former are used to amplify the signals lying
in the audio range i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz whereas the latter are used to amplify signals having very high
frequency.
(iii) According to coupling methods. The output from a single stage amplifier is usually insuf-
ficient to meet the practical requirements. Additional amplification 1s often necessary. To do this, the
output of one stage is coupled to the next stage. Depending upon the coupling device used, the ampli-
fiers are classified as R-C coupled amplifiers, transformer coupled amplifiers etc.
(iv) According to mode of operation. The amplifiers are frequently classified according to their
mode of operation as class A, class B and class C amplifiers. This classification depends on the
portion of the input signal cycle during which collector current is expected to flow. Thus, class A
amplifier is one in which collector current flows for the entire a.c. signal. Class B amplifier is one in
which collector current flows for half-cycle of input a.c. signal. Finally, class C amplifier is one in
which collector current flows for less than half-cycle of a.c. signal.
Example 10.25. What do you understand by following amplifiers:
(i) ClassA voltage amplifier (ii) Audio voltage amplifier
(iii) Class B power amplifier (iv) Class A transformer coupled power amplifier ?
Solution. (@@) ClassA voltage amplifier means that it raises the voltage level of the signal and its
mode of operation is such that collector current flows for the whole input signal.
(ii) Audio voltage amplifier means that it raises the voltage level of audio signal (/.e. one having
frequency range 20 Hz to 20 kHz) and its mode of operation 1s class A.
(iii) It means that this amplifier raises the power level of the signal and its mode of operation 1s
such that collector current flows for half-cycle of the signal only.
272 @ Principles of Hectronics
(iv) It means that power amplification is being done, coupling 1s by transformer and mode of
operation is class A.
10.19 Amplifier Equivalent Circuit
An amplifier can be replaced by an equivalent circuit for the purpose of analysis. Fig. 10.41 (/) shows
the amplifier circuit while Fig. 10.41 (a) shows its equivalent circuit.
| = input signal voltage to the amplifier
1 input signal current
T
= input resistance of the amplifier
a

A, = voltage gain of the amplifier when no load is connected

i, = output current
J’, = output voltage across load R,
Rot = Output resistance of the amplifier
R, = load resistance
A, = voltage gain when load R, is connected
I
i Ly

AMPLIFIER ¥, =R, |V. 1

) (it)
Fig. 10.41
Note that capability of the amplifier to produce voltage gain is represented by the voltage gen-
erator A,J’\. The voltage gain of the loaded amplifier is A, Clearly, A, will be less than A, due to
voltage drop in R out

10.20 Equivalent Circuit with Signal Source

If the signal source of voltage FE, and resistance RK, is considered, the amplifier equivalent circuit will
be as shown in Fig. 10.42.
Referring to Fig. 10.42, we have,

_ Es
A= R,+R,,
ER.
My = LR, = >So
} | Ryt+R,

_ AV,
f - Rou t Ry ”

_ Ap [, Rin .:

7 Rou + R, Wi)

VR
Vv, = LR, = ee ._ (iii)

Vy Ay R,
Voltage gain, A, = Vv = R,, +R,
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 273
R out ly

q
Fig. 10.42
_ fn Ay Bin
Current gain, A,
- f - Rout + Ry

_ BR, GR)
Power gain, A p
VR, “Rh

1b (h),(h
ny ny MA
= AXA,
Note. The use of such an equivalent circuit is restricted to the signal quantities only. Further, in drawing the
equivalent circuit, it is assumed that exact linear relationship exists between input and output signals 7.e. the
amplifier produces no waveform distortion.

Example 10.26. An amplifier has an open circuit voltage gain of 1000, an input resistance of
2 kQ and an output resistance of 1Q. Determine the input signal voltage required to produce an
output signal current of 0.5A in 4Q. resistor connected across the output terminals.

I; Rest =19 l,
VWVW)W™V™-_
$$ >

2kQ
Onn

Fig. 10.43
Solution. Fig. 10.43 shows the equivalent circuit of the amplifier. Here A, = 1000.

I, —A%n Se Art. 10.20

I, Rout + Ry [See rt ,
_ 1000x2000 _ 4 19s
1+4
I
I, = 2 = 2. = 125K 10%A
4x10° 4x10
274 @ Principles of Hectronics
Now IV, = 1,R,, = (1.25x 10)
x 2000 = 2.5x 107° V = 2.5mV
Example 10.27. An amplifier has an open circuit voltage gain of 1000, an output resistance of
15Q and an input resistance of 7kQ. It is supplied from a signal source of e.m.f. 10mV and internal
resistance 3kQ. The amplifier feeds a load of 35 Q. Determine (i) the magnitude of output voltage
and (ii) power gain.

Ry=3 kQ i
Rog= out 15 2 I,
rpm VVVVV V p A

>
E
=oO vy, TKOS Rp C)40 V, =_ 1000 V, V; R= 352
wy |

Fig. 10.44

Solution.
E S—_ 10x10 6
olution. (#) 1 = R,+R, =
3000 + 7000 =10°A
l= 1,R, = 10°x7000 = 7x10°V
A =
[Link] —- 0°
A, R _ 1000 x35 = 700
v~ Vo Ry, +R, 15+ 35
I, = 7007, = 700x7x 10° = 49V
Vy (4.99
u
(ti) Output
put p power, P, 2 = R,
Zo = m2
35 = 0.686 W

I? @x103y = 7x10° W
|
Input power, P, = R aS
= Gxlo

. P. 0.686 6
Power gain, 4, = — = —~7Z7 = 98x 10
6 PBR 7x10°
Example 10.28. An amplifier, when loaded by 2 kQ. resistor, has a voltage gain of 80 and a
current gain of 120. Determine the necessary signal voltage and current to give an output voltage of
LV. What is the power gain of the amplifier ?
Lr
Solution. A, = re = 80
1
I, = 1/80 = 1/80 = 0.0125V = 12.5mV
A, =_ RR,
A, R,
..[See Art. 10.20]

A, an= A Rn
R,.+R, See
..[See Art. Art. 10.20
10.20]

Ay _ Re
A, Run

or 80. = -
120 Rin
R. = 120x2/80 = 3kQ
3
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifiers ™@ 275

v~

t
AMPLIFIER V, 2kO

Fig. 10.45
I, = VYR,, = 12.5mV/3kQ = 4.17 pA
Power gain = A,xA, = 80x 120 = 9600

10.21 Gain and Transistor Configurations

We know that the process of raising the strength of an a.c. signal is called amplification and the circuit
used to preform this function is called an amplifier. There are three types of gain : current gain,
voltage gain and power gain.
(@) The common emitter (CE) amplifier exhibits all there types gain . From input to output,
current will increase, voltage will increase and power will increase.
(ii) The common base (CB) amplifier has voltage gain and power gain but no current gain. Note
that the current gain of a CB circuit is less than 1.
(iii) The common collector (CC) amplifier has current gain and power gain but no voltage gain.
It is important to note that the type of gain an amplifier has depends upon the transistor configu-
ration. Consequently, the choice of an amplifier for a given application often depends on the type of
gain that is desired. Since CE arrangement is widely used (in about 90% applications), we shall be
mainly concentrating on this type of circuit.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. A single stage transistor amplifier contains (i) 20V (ii) 5V
beceteeeees and associated circuitry. (iii) 2V (iv) 10V
(i) two transistors (i) one transistor 6. In the zero signal conditions, a transistor
(ii) three transistors SEES oo... load.
(iv) none of the above (i) de. (ii) ac.
2. The phase difference between the output and (iii) both dc. and ac
input voltages of a CE amplifier is ..........
(iv) none of the above
tin soe oo 07 0° 7. The input capacitor in an amplifier is the
3. Itis generally desired that a transistor should a capacitor .
have ....... input impedance. (@) coupling (7) bypass
(i) low (ii) very low (iii) leakage | (vy) none of the above
(iit) high (iv) very high 8. The point of intersection of d.c. and a.c. load
lines is called .......
4. When an a.c. signal is applied to an ampli-
fier, the operating point moves along ........ (@) saturation point (i) cut off point
(@) [Link] (ii) a.c. load line (iii) operating point (/v)none of the above
(iii) both d.c. and a.c. load lines 9. The slope of a.c. load line 1s .......... that of
d.c. load line.
(iv) none of the above
(i) the same as (i#) more than
5. Ifthe collector supply is 10 V, then collector
cut off voltage under d.c. conditions is........ (iii) less than (iv) none of the above
10. If a transistor amplifier draws 2 mA when