Introduction
Contents
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
b. Types of Errors
c. Sources of Errors
d. Reliability of Measurements
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
Measurements are defined as observations made to
determine unknown quantities.
Measurements must involve observation. No measurement
is made until something is observed.
Measurement is a process that is subject to variation.
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
Since all measurements are subject to variation, it follows
that no quantity that is measured is completely
determinable.
We may seek a fixed value for a quantity that we conceive
to the true value, but we get in reality is nothing more than
estimate of the true value.
If we are to expect variation, then we must expect a
difference between a measure value of a quantity and its
true value, whatever it may be.
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
This difference is known as the error in the measured value.
“no measurements are exact”
“they always contain errors”
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
By definition, an error is the difference between a
measured value for any quantity and its true value, or
𝜀 =𝑥−𝜏
where “ε” is the error in an observation, “x” the measured
value, and “” its true value.
a. Concept of Measurement and Error
ෝ denotes the estimate of , then the difference between
If 𝒙
ෝ and observed value, 𝑥, is defined as the residual, v,
𝒙
specifically,
𝑣 = 𝑥ො − 𝑥
The residual, v, is the quantity that is actually to express in
measurement.
b. Types of Errors
Gross errors are the results of blunders or mistakes that are
due to carelessness of the observer.
b. Types of Errors
Systematic errors are so called
because they occur according
to some deterministic system
which, when known, can be
expressed by some functional
relationship.
b. Types of Errors
Random errors, after all blunders
are detected and removed,
and the measurements are
corrected for ll known systematic
errors, there will still remain some
variation in the measurements.
c. Sources of Errors
Natural Errors
Natural errors are caused by environmental conditions or
significant changes in environmental conditions. Wind
speed, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity,
gravity, earth curvature, and atmospheric refraction are
examples of natural error sources. Many of these
environmental conditions can be compensated for by
applying a correction factor to each measurement.
c. Sources of Errors
Natural Errors
c. Sources of Errors
Instrument Errors
Instrument errors are caused by imperfectly constructed,
adjusted, or calibrated surveying equipment. Most of these
errors can be reduced by properly leveling the instrument,
balancing backsight/foresight shots, reducing measurement
distances, and observing direct and reverse positions (double
centering).
c. Sources of Errors
Instrument Errors
c. Sources of Errors
Human Errors
Human errors are caused by physical limitations and
inconsistent setup and observation habits of the surveyor.
For example, minor errors result from misaligning the
telescope crosshairs on the target or not holding the target
rod perfectly plumb. These errors will always be present to
some degree in every observation. However, by following
established setup and collection procedures, many
potential errors can be minimized.
c. Sources of Errors
Human Errors
d. Reliability of Measurements
Three commons terms used to express the reliability of
measurements;
1. Precisions
2. Accuracy
3. Uncertainty
d. Reliability of Measurements
1. Precisions – is the degree of closeness or conformity of
repeated measurements of the same quantity to each
other. If the repeated measurements are closely
clustered together, they are said to have high precision;
if they are widely spread apart, they have low precision.
High precision generally reflects the high degree of care
and refinement in the instrumentation and procedure
used in making the measurements.
d. Reliability of Measurements
2. Accuracy – is the degree of conformity or closeness of a
measurement to the true value. Accuracy includes not
only the effects of random errors but also any bias due
to uncorrected systematic errors. If there is no bias, the
standard deviation can also be used as a measure of
accuracy.
d. Reliability of Measurements
3. Uncertainty – is the range within which it is expected the
error of measurement will fall. A specified level of
probability is generally associated with an uncertainty.
The 90% uncertainty, for example, is the range of values
within which it is 90% probable the error of the
measurement will fall.