critical engine [Link].

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WHAT IS THE CRITICAL ENGINE?

The critical engine is the engine that if failed will have the most adverse affect on the CONTROL and
PERFORMANCE of the aircraft.

WHICH ENGINE IS THE CRITICAL ENGINE?

In a conventional twin (clockwise prop rotation), the LEFT ENGINE is the critical engine.
In a counter rotating twin, there is no critical engine.

WHY IS THE LEFT ENGINE THE CRITICAL ENGINE?

There are 4 reasons the left engine is the critical engine (REMEMBER - PAST):
P-FACTOR
ACCELERATED SLIPSTREAM
SPIRALING SLIPSTREAM
TORQUE
P-FACTOR:
The descending blade of each propeller produces more thrust than the ascending blade
Therefore, in a conventional twin, the center of thrust is offset to the right of each engine (see blue thrust arrows below)
There is a greater distance (arm) between the center of thrust & the longitudinal axis on the R-engine than on the left
The greater the distance, or arm, the greater the leverage
If the R-engine fails the leverage associated with P-Factor is not as great as if the left engine fails
If the L-engine fails the yaw from P-Factor is most adverse, therefore the L-engine is critical

ACCELERATED SLIPSTREAM:
Due to P-Factor, there is greater airflow (more lift) over the
wings on the right side of each engine (D1 & D2 areas)
There is a greater distance (arm) between the excess lift and
the longitudinal axis on the R-engine than on the L-engine
The greater the distance, or arm, the greater the leverage
If the L-engine fails, there is a stronger rolling action than if
the R-engine fails, therefore the L-engine is critical

SPIRALING SLIPSTREAM:
Each prop produces a spiraling slipstream of air behind it (picture)
The L-engine’s slipstream strikes the rudder on the left side creating a left turning tendency
The R-engine’s slipstream has no affect on the aircraft
If the R-engine fails the L-engine’s slipstream will counteract some of the yaw toward the dead engine
If the L-engine fails the airplane will yaw uninhibited toward the dead engine, therefore the L-engine is critical

TORQUE:
Torque is based on Newton’s 3rd law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
When the props spin clockwise torque will cause the plane to roll counter-clockwise (CCW) (picture)
If the R-engine fails the plane will roll to the right, but the CCW torque will offset some of the force
If the L-engine fails the CCW torque will encourage the roll toward the L-engine
The L-engine is critical since torque most adversely affects control when the L-engine fails
 Vmc
[Link]

WHAT IS V mc (MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE AIRSPEED)?

Vmc is the speed at which the rudder no longer has the authority to overcome the yaw caused by the critical engine being
inoperative, under specific criteria mandated by the FAA.
The lower Vmc is, the safer the aircraft is. It makes sense that the slower an aircraft can go while still maintaining control with
an engine failed, the better.
*Vmc strictly deals with maintaining directional control, irrespective of climb performance.

WHAT CAUSES A MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE AIRSPEED?

With an engine failed, the operating engine (assume full power) will produce
a yawing force toward the dead engine (T x X)
INOPERATIVE T TOTAL
ENGINE FORCE
ENGINE
The rudder is used to counteract the yaw and keep the aircraft straight
TxX
(Thrust x Arm)
The rudder’s force (R x Y) is based on airspeed
The slower the aircraft, the less airflow over the rudder, and therefore
X
the less force (faster means more force)
TOTAL
As an aircraft slows and the rudder’s force decreases, the force of yaw
RUDDER FORCE Vmc generated by the engine remains constant
RxY Y TxX=RxY
(Rudder Force x Arm)
(Engine =
Rudder ( Therefore, there will be an airspeed where the rudder’s force is equal to the
Force Force
engine’s force (this is Vmc, the Minimum Controllable Airspeed) (see graph )
If the aircraft slows beyond this speed, the rudder will produce less force than
R the engine and the airplane will yaw uncontrollably to the dead engine

Say, for example, an operating engine at max thrust produces 1,000 lbs of yaw (T x X)
toward the dead engine. This force will remain consistent regardless of airspeed.
Vmc
Now, assume that at 150 kts the rudder can produce 2,000 lbs of force (R x Y). As 3000

airspeed is reduced, so is the rudder’s force. At 100 kts, this rudder can generate 2500
Pounds of Force

1,400 lbs of force, more than enough to control the 1,000 lbs from the failed engine. 2000
1500
But, as airspeed continues to bleed the rudder will reach a point, say 70 knots, at
1000
which it can produce exactly 1,000 lbs (the same as the yaw from the engine). This is Vmc
500
the minimum controllable airspeed. As soon as the aircraft decelerates below 70 kts 0
the rudder’s force drops below 1,000 lbs. At this point, the rudder is unable to over- 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
come the yaw caused by the engine being inoperative and the aircraft begins an Airspeed

uncontrollable yaw toward the dead engine. If the airspeed is increased, or thrust is Rudder Force Engine Force

reduced on the operating engine, the rudder can regain control.

HOW IS V mc CERTIFIED?
The FAA sets forth criteria for aircraft manufacturers to follow in order to establish Vmc for an aircraft. The criteria is as
follows:
Maximum Takeoff Power 5o of Bank into the Operative Engine
Critical Engine Inoperative Gear Up
Inoperative Engine Windmilling Flaps in the Takeoff Position
Sea Level Conditions Cowl Flaps Open
Most Adverse Legal Weight Out of Ground Effect
Most Adverse Legal C of G
HOW DOES THIS CRITERIA AFFECT Vmc ?
Vmc is not a fixed airspeed. It is only fixed for the specific set of circumstances under which it was tested for certification.
We want to maintain control at the slowest possible speed, so A LOWER Vmc IS GOOD and A HIGHER Vmc IS BAD.
Anything increasing the force to the dead engine will increase Vmc, and vice versa.
.

Anything increasing the amount of force the rudder can produce will decrease Vmc, and vice versa.

MAXIMUM TAKEOFF POWER - BAD for Vmc

The more power on the operating engine, the greater the force pulling toward the dead engine. The greater the force, the
earlier the rudder will lose control. The minimum controllable airspeed will be higher with greater power.
CRITICAL ENGINE INOPERATIVE - BAD for Vmc
The critical engine is the engine that has the most adverse affect on control of the plane. By failing this engine, the rudder has
more force to overcome than if the R-engine was failed, therefore Vmc will be higher.
INOPERATIVE ENGINE WINDMILLING - BAD for Vmc
A windmilling prop creates more drag than a feathered prop. Increased drag on the inoperative engine will create a stronger
yaw toward the dead engine. Therefore, the rudder has to overcome more force, raising Vmc.
SEA LEVEL CONDITIONS - BAD for Vmc
At sea level the dense air allows the operating engine and prop to produce maximum thrust. Since there is more thrust,
there is a greater force toward the dead engine for the rudder to overcome, therefore Vmc is higher.
MOST UNFAVORABLE LEGAL WEIGHT (LIGHTEST WEIGHT) - BAD for Vmc
Vmc increases as weight is reduced so the lightest legal weight is most unfavorable. The lightest weight provides the aircraft
the least momentum. The heavier the aircraft, the more likely its inertia will carry it forward and help prevent the yaw and
roll associated with a failed engine.
MOST UNFAVORABLE LEGAL CENTER OF GRAVITY (AFT C of G) - BAD for Vmc
Vmc increases as the C of G is moved aft. The further aft the C of G, the shorter the rudder’s arm is. The shorter the arm, the
less effective the rudder. Vmc will be higher since the rudder produces less force at any speed than if the C of G was forward.
OUT OF GROUND EFFECT - BAD for Vmc
Vmc decreases in ground effect. As the aircraft yaws and rolls toward the dead engine the dead engine’s wing would dip
further into ground effect, reducing its drag as it became more efficient, thus reducing the yaw toward the dead engine.
GEAR RETRACTED - BAD for Vmc
When the gear is down it acts as a keel (like on a boat) which aids in directional stability and decreases Vmc. With the gear
up the keel effect is removed and it cannot help keep the aircraft straight.
COWL FLAPS OPEN - GOOD for Vmc
With the cowl flaps open the operating engine’s prop will push air into the cowl flaps resulting in increased drag. Increased
drag on the operating engine decreases Vmc since it assists in counteracting the yaw toward the dead engine.
5o OF BANK INTO THE OPERATING ENGINE - GOOD for Vmc
The horizontal component of lift generated by bank assists the rudder in counteracting the yaw from the inoperative engine.
Vmc is reduced considerably with bank angle so the FAA limits the bank during testing to 5o.
FLAPS IN THE TAKEOFF POSITION - Could go either way
Most twins takeoff without flaps, therefore there will be no effect. But, with many different flap sizes, types, and settings,
having the flaps down could help or hurt Vmc. Having the flaps down could produce more drag on the operating engine
(reducing the yaw), it could also create more lift on the operating engine’s wing (increasing roll toward the dead engine).
 terminology [Link]

CRITICAL ENGINE
The engine that if failed will have the most adverse affect on the control and performance of the aircraft.

Vmc
The speed at which the rudder no longer has the authority to overcome the yaw caused by the critical engine being inopera-
tive, under specific criteria.

ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE

The distance required to accelerate to rotation speed, and assuming an engine failure at rotation, bring the aircraft to a stop.
This is the maximum runway required for an aborted takeoff since an engine failure after rotation will be handled airborne.

ACCELERATE GO DISTANCE
The distance required to accelerate to rotation speed, and assuming an engine failure at rotation, climb to 35’ above the
departure end.

SERVICE CEILING
The density altitude which will produce a 100 foot per minute climb when flying in a clean configuration, at the best rate of
climb airspeed with both engines at maximum continuous power.

SINGLE ENGINE SERVICE CEILING

The density altitude which will produce a 50 foot per minute climb when flying in a clean configuration, at the best rate of
climb airspeed with one engine at maximum continuous power and the other engine feathered.

ABSOLUTE CEILING
The highest altitude at which an airplane can sustain level flight with both engines operating (this altitude will never be
reached in flight except during flight testing).

SINGLE ENGINE ABSOLUTE CEILING

The highest altitude at which an airplane can sustain level flight with one engine operating. This altitude will only be reached
if flying above the single engine absolute ceiling when the engine is lost and the aircraft drifts down to the SE absolute ceiling.

CRITICAL ALTITUDE
The maximum altitude under standard atmospheric conditions at which a turbocharged engine can produce its rated horse-
power. Above this altitude, the engine‘s performance will begin to decrease.

Vyse
The best rate of climb airspeed during single engine operations.

Vsse
The safe single engine speed. It is unsafe to intentionally fail an engine below this airspeed.