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TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 21 May 2025
DOI 10.3389/feduc.2025.1539722

Exploring the effect of using

OPEN ACCESS active learning strategies on
EDITED BY
Mohammad H. Al-khresheh,
Northern Border University, Saudi Arabia
Iranian intermediate female EFL
REVIEWED BY
Mayez Almayez,
learners reading comprehension:
University of Hail, Saudi Arabia
Abdullahi Yusuf,
Sokoto State University, Nigeria
a mixed methods study
*CORRESPONDENCE
Zahra Majdi Zahra Majdi1,2*, Masoud Khalili Sabet2 and
z.majdi1994@[Link]
Amir Mahdavi-Zafarghandi2
1
RECEIVED 07 January 2025 Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University
ACCEPTED 23 April 2025 of Guilan, Rasht, Iran, 2 Department of Foreign Languages, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
PUBLISHED 21 May 2025

CITATION
Majdi Z, Khalili Sabet M and
Mahdavi-Zafarghandi A (2025) Exploring
the effect of using active learning strategies This study investigates the impact of active learning strategies (ALSs) on
on Iranian intermediate female EFL learners reading comprehension, engagement, motivation, and enjoyment among
reading comprehension: a mixed methods
study.
intermediate Iranian EFL learners, and explores their perceptions of ALS
Front. Educ. 10:1539722. in reading. It addresses the prevalence of passive learning methods in
doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1539722
Iranian EFL education and aims to evaluate the potential of ALS. Eighty
COPYRIGHT
female high school students were divided into experimental and control
© 2025 Majdi, Khalili Sabet and
Mahdavi-Zafarghandi. This is an open-access groups. The experimental group participated in ten active learning sessions.
article distributed under the terms of the Quantitative data (pre- and post-tests) assessed reading comprehension,
Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction engagement, motivation, and enjoyment. Qualitative data were gathered via
in other forums is permitted, provided the semi-structured interviews to explore student perceptions. Quantitative data
original author(s) and the copyright owner(s)
are credited and that the original publication
revealed significantly higher post-test scores in reading comprehension for the
in this journal is cited, in accordance with experimental group using ALSs. Qualitative data highlighted positive student
accepted academic practice. No use,
perceptions, including improved reading skills, strategic approaches to texts,
distribution or reproduction is permitted
which does not comply with these terms. and enhanced comprehension due to diverse activities and supportive peer
interaction. No significant differences were found in engagement, motivation, or
enjoyment. The findings underscore the potential of ALS to improve EFL reading
comprehension. The discrepancy in engagement, motivation, or enjoyment
may be attributable to cultural factors and learning preferences within the
Iranian EFL context. Challenges such as difficulties with complex texts, unfamiliar
vocabulary, time constraints, and occasional issues with group dynamics
were also identified. The findings emphasize the need for culturally sensitive
implementation, ongoing support, and strategic adjustments. Further research
is recommended on the long-term effects of ALSs on learner engagement and
motivation.

KEYWORDS

active learning strategies, reading comprehension, EFL learners, motivation,

engagement, qualitative perceptions

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1 Introduction Therefore, a deeper understanding of how ALSs can be effectively

utilized to enhance reading comprehension within the Iranian EFL
Reading comprehension is widely regarded as a foundational setting is essential.
skill that requires active cognitive engagement with text to This study aims to address a significant research gap by
extract and interpret meaning (Chi and Wylie, 2014; Harvey investigating the effectiveness of 10 selected ALSs (Bonwell and
and Goudvis, 2023). While early models primarily described Eison, 1991; Harmin and Toth, 2006) on the EFL learners’ reading
comprehension through a cognitive lens, emphasizing reasoning comprehension in Iran. Specifically, the study seeks to determine
and text-based interpretation (National Center for Educational whether ALSs can enhance learners’ motivation, engagement, and
Statistics, 2005), more recent perspectives recognize reading enjoyment in reading comprehension courses, as these factors are
comprehension as a dynamic, interactive, and constructive process critical indicators of the success of active learning (Cole et al.,
(Yunus and Ubaidillah, 2021). Indeed, the National Assessment 2021). Although reading comprehension has long been recognized
Governing Board (2008) acknowledges the complexity inherent as challenging to assess directly, ALSs present potential solutions by
in comprehension, highlighting that understanding text involves engaging students in activities such as questioning, peer teaching,
engaging with its purpose, structure, and broader context. For EFL and problem-solving, which encourage visible interaction with
learners, reading comprehension is often identified as particularly texts (Pressley, 2000). Consequently, this research aims to broaden
challenging (Dörnyei, 2019). This challenge is compounded by the understanding of active learning’s potential to transform
the fact that reading processes and learners’ mental engagement EFL classrooms in Iran into a more interactive, student-centered
with the text are usually less visible and directly observable in environments and to provide insights into how such strategies may
classroom settings (Hovland, 2019). Consequently, fostering EFL better support learners in constructing meaning.
reading comprehension necessitates the incorporation of strategies
that promote active interaction with the text, stimulating cognitive,
emotional, and social engagement to facilitate deep and meaningful
understanding (Amjadi and Talebi, 2024).
2 Review of Literature
Among the various instructional approaches, active learning
has emerged as a prominent pedagogical strategy to enhance 2.1 Theoretical backgrounds
engagement with reading materials. Rooted in the constructivist
theories of Dewey (1930), Bruner (1961), Vygotsky (1962), Constructivist learning theory posits that learners actively
and Piaget (1980), active learning shifts the educational focus construct knowledge rather than passively receive it, shaping
from teacher-centered knowledge transmission to student-centered their understanding through experience, reflection, and interaction
engagement. According to Bonwell and Eison (1991), active with their environment (Dewey, 1930; Vygotsky and Cole, 1978).
learning involves “students in doing things and thinking about Originating from the work of early theorists such as John
the things they are doing” (p. 2), necessitating that students take Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky, constructivism emphasizes
an active role in constructing knowledge through activities that cognitive engagement as a critical aspect of learning. Dewey’s
promote reflection, analysis, and problem-solving. In alignment pragmatism laid the foundation for constructivist principles,
with constructivist principles, students do not passively receive asserting that learning occurs most effectively when students
information; rather, they actively process and build upon existing engage meaningfully with content, often through problem-solving
knowledge through structured tasks (McLaughlin, 2012). This and experiential learning (Dewey, 1930). Piaget (1970) further
paradigm shift from passive to active learning has prompted advanced this theory by emphasizing the role of cognitive
educational practitioners, including those in EFL contexts, to development stages, suggesting that knowledge is constructed
increasingly adopt methodologies that encourage students to progressively through the accommodation and assimilation of new
engage actively in the learning process, thereby fostering deeper information.
comprehension and retention. Constructivism also challenges behaviorist models that view
Active learning strategies (ALSs) are supported by a substantial learning as a direct outcome of stimulus-response interactions.
body of theoretical literature and have demonstrated effectiveness Constructivists perceive learning as an active cognitive process
across various educational contexts. While research has examined driven by students’ internal motivation and prior knowledge. Piaget
the application of active learning principles in EFL settings, argued that learners are constructing their cognitive frameworks
including listening comprehension and general language through interactions with both the content and context of learning
acquisition (e.g., Ashraf et al., 2013; Hajhosseini et al., 2016), (Anthony, 1996). The constructivist approach aligns with ALSs, as
there has been less emphasis on understanding the specific impacts both emphasize the learner’s active role in acquiring knowledge.
of ALSs on reading comprehension, particularly within the Iranian Mayer (2009) clarifies this alignment by distinguishing between
EFL context. This is noteworthy given the prevalent traditional, constructivism as a theory of learning, which stresses cognitive
passive learning model in many Iranian EFL classrooms, where processes, and constructivism as an instructional strategy, which
teachers often assume the role of information transmitters, and focuses on experiential, hands-on activities. In other words, while
students are positioned as passive recipients of knowledge (Mayer, active learning may involve behavioral activities such as group
2002; Fahim and Ahmadian, 2012). This pedagogical strategy work or problem-solving exercises, its primary objective is to
can limit students’ engagement with reading content, potentially engage learners cognitively by prompting reflection, analysis,
leading to a memorization-focused approach that may not foster and synthesis. Therefore, constructivist learning theory underpins
active cognitive engagement (Stewart-Wingfield and Black, 2005). ALSs by asserting that meaningful learning requires students to

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engage deeply with content, transforming information into relevant discuss interpretations, and reflect on how their understanding
knowledge structures (Mayer, 2002, 2008; Zajda, 2021). evolves through engagement with peers and instructors.
Social constructivist learning theory builds upon traditional Constructivist theories posit that learning is most effective
constructivism by emphasizing the social nature of knowledge when new knowledge is connected to existing knowledge
construction. Vygotsky and Cole (1978) work on the Zone structures. ALSs facilitate this connection through structured tasks
of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Bandura and Walters that promote analysis and synthesis (Bonwell and Eison, 1991;
(1977) social learning theory highlight the importance of Børte et al., 2020). This aligns with Watson-Gegeo and Nielsen
collaborative learning environments, where learners achieve (2003) assertion that constructivist classrooms encourage students
cognitive growth through interactions with more knowledgeable to learn not only from the instructor but also from one another,
peers or mentors. According to Vygotsky, learners attain higher fostering a more dynamic and inclusive learning experience.
levels of understanding when they engage in social interactions Furthermore, the constructivist approach to active learning not
that scaffold their learning processes, enabling them to gradually only enhances academic performance but also fosters the social
tackle more challenging tasks within their ZPD (Erbil, 2020). growth of learners (Qureshi et al., 2021), creating a holistic
Bandura and Walters (1977) also emphasized the role of and transformative learning experience. Together, constructivist
reciprocal interactions, positing that learning arises from both and social constructivist theories provide a robust theoretical
individual cognition and environmental influences. Together, these foundation for ALSs in EFL classrooms, where cognitive and social
concepts suggest that knowledge is co-constructed within social engagement are crucial for reading comprehension. These theories
contexts, and understanding is enriched through dialogue, shared underscore the necessity of teaching approaches that prioritize
experiences, and guided practice. In language acquisition, the active student involvement, scaffolded interactions, and the co-
social constructivist framework has become a crucial foundation
construction of knowledge—essential components for fostering
for understanding how learners interact with language and
deeper understanding in reading tasks. In essence, by promoting
develop communicative skills. Social interaction fosters linguistic
active cognitive processing, ALSs enable students to transcend
development by allowing learners to practice and refine their
rote memorization and develop a deeper, more meaningful
language in authentic, meaningful contexts (Lantolf, 2005; Rowe
comprehension of the content.
and Weisleder, 2020). Such interactions involve not only linguistic
exchanges but also the negotiation of meaning (Rannikmäe
et al., 2020), which is essential for reading comprehension. In
particular, EFL classrooms benefit from collaborative, interactive 2.2 Previous research on active learning
environments where students can engage in tasks that promote (strategies)
both cognitive and emotional development through shared
learning experiences (Brown, 2000; Huang and Lajoie, 2023; Alzubi
ALSs have received considerable attention across educational
et al., 2024).
disciplines for their capacity to cognitively engage students,
Social constructivist principles strongly support active learning,
enhance motivation, and improve overall learning outcomes.
particularly its cooperative and interactive approaches (Holec and
Bonwell and Eison (1991) foundational work defined active
Marynowski, 2020; Doolittle et al., 2023). This framework aligns
learning as any activity that "involves students in doing things
closely with ALSs by prioritizing active participation, reflection,
and thinking about the things they are doing" (p. 2), establishing
and the application of prior knowledge. Mayer (2002) asserts
it as a key pedagogical approach. Their research posited that
that active learning environments cultivate cognitive engagement
ALSs, such as group discussions, problem-solving exercises, and
by requiring students to select pertinent information, arrange
case studies, encourage students to transcend passive listening by
it into coherent mental models, and integrate it with pre-
existing knowledge. Smith et al. (2021) and Dugasa et al. actively constructing knowledge.
(2022) echo this in the context of reading comprehension, Empirical evidence increasingly supports the positive impact of
emphasizing that comprehension involves actively constructing ALSs. For example, Carr et al. (2015), utilizing the Australasian
meaning by integrating textual information with the reader’s Survey of Student Engagement with over 5,800 participants,
background knowledge and personal experiences. ALSs, such as reported that frequent engagement in ALSs correlated with
peer teaching, group discussions, and role-playing, operationalize higher levels of student engagement and satisfaction. This aligns
constructivist concepts. These strategies foster environments where with Bruff (2009) assertion that interactive methods, such as
learners collaborate to solve problems, interpret information, and small-group discussions, often lead to greater learning outcomes
collectively construct knowledge. They transform students from compared to traditional lectures. Bachelor et al. (2012) found
passive recipients into active participants, promoting agency and that incorporating ALSs like role-playing and peer-led discussions
stimulating critical thinking for deeper understanding. Through significantly increased student motivation and engagement, while
tasks like group problem-solving, questioning, and interactive Camacho and Legare (2015) demonstrated that ALSs foster a
discussions, ALSs encourage learners to engage with content at more productive and appealing learning environment, resulting
a higher cognitive level, thereby supporting comprehension and in heightened participation. More recently, Mohammed and Al-
long-term retention (Michel et al., 2009). In EFL contexts, for hassan (2023) underscored the positive effects of ALSs on EFL
example, studies indicate that ALSs enhance students’ engagement learners’ motivation, attitudes, aptitudes, and skills.
with texts (Li et al., 2021) by creating opportunities for meaning Collectively, studies indicate that ALSs enhance students’
negotiation and connecting personal experiences with the material. cognitive engagement, motivation, and perceptions of their
ALSs provide structured opportunities for learners to analyze texts, educational experiences. However, it’s important to acknowledge

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that not all research reports uniformly positive outcomes. Stewart- learning (PBL) within a reading methodology course demonstrated
Wingfield and Black (2005), for instance, found that an active increased knowledge retention and improved comprehension
course design didn’t necessarily lead to higher satisfaction scores abilities. This aligns with Freeman et al. (2014) findings,
or improved academic results; while students appreciated the emphasizing that active participation aids students in internalizing
collaborative environment, they didn’t report significantly higher complex concepts and enhances their overall comprehension.
levels of satisfaction or learning outcomes. This highlights potential Several studies demonstrate the cognitive benefits of ALSs.
variability in how ALSs are perceived across different contexts, Güneyli (2008) found that fifth-grade students who engaged
suggesting that their effectiveness may depend on factors like in discussion and problem-solving activities (ALSs) exhibited
subject matter, instructional quality, and learner preferences. significantly higher reading comprehension scores compared
Despite these mixed findings, the overall body of research suggests a to those using traditional methods. This suggests that ALSs
positive impact of ALSs on cognitive engagement, motivation, and enhance cognitive development by promoting active processing
learning outcomes. and interpretation of text.
Increasing research has focused on applying ALSs in EFL Similarly, Lin (2017) found that Taiwanese university students
and ESL contexts, examining their influence on language in an EFL reading course utilizing PBL outperformed their
learning outcomes, particularly regarding motivation, cognitive peers on reading comprehension post-tests, suggesting that ALSs
engagement, and language skills. Recognizing the traditional promote effective comprehension and positive attitudes toward
reliance on passive approaches in EFL classrooms, studies have reading in EFL contexts. Er et al. (2012) also found that male
demonstrated promising results when integrating ALSs to enhance college students employing ALSs like group discussions, peer
learner engagement and autonomy (Ashraf et al., 2013; Naderi teaching, and interactive reading achieved significantly higher
and Ashraf, 2013). For instance, Ashraf et al. (2013) found comprehension scores than the control group, underscoring the
that intermediate-level EFL learners engaging in ALSs like cognitive and motivational benefits of active engagement. However,
peer teaching, jigsaw tasks, and information transfer activities their study revealed that ALSs did not significantly correlate with
significantly improved their listening comprehension compared to enhanced self-concept, suggesting that while ALSs improve reading
a control group. Naderi and Ashraf (2013) similarly found that comprehension, their impact on self-perception may vary.
ALS instruction led to Iranian EFL learners in the experimental Furthermore, ALSs can promote more active and reflective
group reporting higher levels of listening self-efficacy. Echoing reading experiences. Hovland (2019) found that ALSs like
these findings, Gasmi and Al Nadabi (2023) reported Omani reading logs and structured discussions enhanced comprehension
students’ appreciation of ALSs, noting improvements in learners’ and complex thinking skills in an advanced EFL course by
critical thinking, evaluation, problem-solving, motivation, and actively connecting new information to existing knowledge. This
engagement. These results align with principles of cognitive indicates that ALSs not only improve comprehension but also
psychology (Mizokami, 2018), suggesting that ALSs promote encourage learners to take ownership of their reading. More
active engagement and collaboration, enabling more effective recently, Korkmaz and Öz (2021) found that the online game
internalization of language concepts. “Kahoot!” significantly increased EFL learners’ motivation and
Overall, ALS outcomes in EFL contexts indicate that comprehension abilities, and Indriyani et al. (2024) reported
these strategies positively impact cognitive and motivational the effectiveness of active learning models in enhancing reading
outcomes, enhancing language acquisition through interactive, comprehension.
student-centered learning approaches. While most studies have While ALSs have demonstrated benefits for general reading
concentrated on language skills such as listening and speaking, comprehension, there is a relative paucity of studies focusing on
there has been less emphasis on understanding the effects of ALSs their application in Iranian EFL contexts, particularly concerning
on reading comprehension. This gap highlights the need for further Iranian learners who may encounter unique cultural and linguistic
investigation into how ALSs can specifically support reading challenges. Significant gaps persist in research on ALSs and reading
comprehension in EFL classrooms, where active engagement with comprehension specifically within this context, as much of the
texts may promote deep understanding and retention. By applying existing research emphasizes other language skills, such as listening
ALSs to reading comprehension, educators may bridge the divide and speaking. Given the distinctive challenges faced by EFL
between passive content delivery and active engagement, providing learners, including vocabulary limitations and unfamiliar cultural
EFL learners with more meaningful opportunities to develop their references, research in this area is crucial to understanding how
reading proficiency. ALSs can effectively address these challenges and enhance reading
outcomes. Additionally, there is a notable lack of research on
EFL learners’ attitudes toward ALSs in reading comprehension,
2.3 Active learning and reading which could yield valuable insights into their perceptions of these
comprehension strategies. Moreover, most recent research related to these factors
has been conducted outside of language education (Owens et al.,
ALSs positively influence reading comprehension by fostering 2020; Abujreiban, 2023; Sia et al., 2024), particularly in STEM-
cognitive engagement and enhancing motivation, leading to based active learning courses (Julia and Antolí, 2019; Stieha et al.,
improved understanding. Research supports this, indicating that 2024). However, Phan (2022) recently demonstrated that active
active participation in reading tasks promotes deep comprehension learning fosters learners’ critical thinking, reading comprehension,
and effective information retention. For instance, TeKippe (2017) interpersonal skills, and problem-solving abilities through teachers’
found that pre-service teachers engaging in problem-based perceptions of active learning techniques.

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2.4 The current study questionnaires) to be further described through qualitative data,
to gain a deeper understanding of learners’ perspectives. In this
The theoretical and empirical literature provides robust design, the experimental group received instruction based on ALSs,
support for the positive impact of ALSs on cognitive while the control group followed traditional reading instruction
engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes. Therefore, methods, with the objective of identifying statistically significant
multiple perspectives underscore the significance of the current trends in reading comprehension performance, engagement,
study. As previously noted, despite growing evidence of the enjoyment, and motivation. Informed by the quantitative findings,
effectiveness of ALSs, research remains limited within the the qualitative phase employed semi-structured interviews to
Iranian EFL context, particularly regarding their specific impact explore participants’ perspectives on the impact of ALSs on their
on reading comprehension. Iranian classrooms traditionally learning.
rely on passive, teacher-centered methods (Zarei et al., 2019;
Fahim and Ahmadian, 2012), limiting active, student-centered
participation; consequently, the potential of ALSs to enhance 3.2 Context and participants
reading comprehension among Iranian EFL learners remains
largely unexplored. This study was conducted in a northern city of Iran by
Few studies address the influence of ALSs on learner one researcher, who served as an English teacher in both
motivation, engagement, and enjoyment—critical factors for participating schools. The participants included 80 intermediate-
successful language acquisition and central to active learning level female EFL students (ages 16–18, Farsi L1) from two public
environments (Carr et al., 2015; Bachelor et al., 2012). Notably, high schools in Mazandaran. Participants were initially selected
most recent research related to these factors has been conducted through convenience sampling, and their English proficiency was
outside of language education (Owens et al., 2020; Abujreiban, subsequently verified using the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) to
2023; Sia et al., 2024), particularly in STEM-based active learning ensure homogeneity; only those meeting the required intermediate
courses (Julia and Antolí, 2019; Stieha et al., 2024). Understanding proficiency level were included. The final cohort of 80 participants
how these factors manifest in the reading comprehension process was randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a
for EFL learners can provide valuable insights into the broader control group (40 students in each). The study exclusively involved
benefits of ALSs. Furthermore, there is limited research on Iranian female participants due to gender-segregated education policies
EFL learners’ perceptions of ALSs in reading comprehension in Iranian schools. The students were from grades 10, 11, and
courses, which could offer practical insights into how learners 12, studying various fields. Ethical considerations, in accordance
experience and respond to these strategies and inform educators with the principles outlined by the British Educational Research
about the adaptability of ALSs within Iranian EFL classrooms. Association (BERA), were carefully followed. Informed consent
To address these gaps, the present study aims to explore the was obtained from both the students and school administrators.
impact of ALSs on the reading comprehension of intermediate All respondents were thoroughly briefed on the study’s purpose
Iranian female EFL learners, focusing on three key areas: and procedures, and anonymity and confidentiality were strictly
maintained. Participants were assured that the study results would
1. Do active learning strategies significantly affect the reading be used solely for research purposes. A committee of professors
comprehension of intermediate female EFL learners in two at the University of Guilan also reviewed the research design,
public high schools in Mazandaran? methodology, and ethical considerations.
2. Do intermediate female EFL learners in two public
high schools in Mazandaran differ significantly in terms
of engagement, enjoyment, and motivation in reading
3.3 Materials and instruments
comprehension courses when exposed to ALSs?
3. What are the perceptions of intermediate female EFL
The instructional materials for this study were selected from
learners in two public high schools in Mazandaran
Objective IELTS Intermediate, chosen for its alignment with
regarding active learning strategies in a reading
the students’ proficiency levels and engaging reading topics.
comprehension classroom, as revealed through
Ten lessons, representing a diverse range of subjects suitable
semi-structured interviews?
for incorporating ALSs, were selected (Table 1). Each lesson
implemented one or more strategies from Bonwell and Eison
(1991) active learning framework, supplemented by additional
strategies from Harmin and Toth (2006) to ensure varied and
3 Materials and methods interactive engagement during the pre-reading, while-reading, and
post-reading stages (Table 2). Activities such as questioning, role-
3.1 Design of the study playing, and cooperative learning were used to promote active
participation in reading comprehension.
This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods Four main instruments were employed to collect data: the
design to explore the impact of ALSs on reading comprehension. OPT, two reading comprehension tests (pre-test and post-test),
Following Creswell and Clark (2017), quantitative data were three engagement-related questionnaires, and a semi-structured
collected prior to the qualitative phase, allowing the statistical interview. The OPT, a 60-min standardized placement test
findings from pretest-posttest control group design (tests and comprising 60 multiple-choice questions that assess vocabulary and

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TABLE 1 Selected reading texts from objective IELTS To further investigate participants’ perceptions of ALSs,
intermediate student’s book.
in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten
Sessions Topic Task type randomly selected students from the experimental group. These
interviews were designed to explore their experiences with
1 Communicate (Unit 1, p. 8) True/False/Not given
Short-answer questions active learning in reading comprehension and included three
yes/no questions and two open-ended questions (Supplementary
2 Ways of Learning (Unit 4, Reading effectively
p. 26)
Appendix B) that probed motivation, engagement, and challenges.
Conducted in Persian to facilitate clearer expression, the
3 Discovering the past (Unit 5, True/False/Not given
interviews were recorded, transcribed, and thematically analyzed
p. 34) Multiple choice
Note completion to identify recurring patterns and key insights into the participants’
experiences with ALSs.
4 Selling dreams? (Unit 7, Multiple choice
p. 46) Headings

5 Climate change (Unit 9, Summary completion

p. 60) 3.4 Procedures
6 Animal life (Unit 11, p. 72) Multiple choice
The study procedure was organized into three phases: pre-
7 Sport: Just for Fun? (Unit 12, Matching
instruction, during instruction, and post-instruction. In the pre-
p. 78)
instruction phase, both groups attended an introductory session
8 Choices (Unit 13, p. 86) Locating information where the study’s objectives and procedures were explained by the
9 Books, writing and signs Classification researcher, who also served as the students’ reading teacher. The
(Unit 16, p. 104) True/False/Not given OPT was then administered to ensure participants’ homogeneity at
10 Moving abroad (Unit 20, Global multiple choice the intermediate proficiency level. After random assignment into
p. 130) Locating information experimental and control groups, participants completed a reading
Flow-chart completion comprehension pre-test to establish baseline performance.
During the instructional phase, the experimental group
participated in ten sessions focused on ALS, while the control
grammar, was initially utilized to identify participants’ intermediate group followed a traditional reading instruction approach. With
proficiency levels. Following a pilot study, the OPT demonstrated the school management’s approval, one hour per week was
acceptable reliability, affirming its appropriateness as a measure of dedicated to this study over a three-month period, as the Iranian
proficiency. To assess reading comprehension, two IELTS-based education system allocates only three hours per week for English
reading tests were administered before after the intervention. Each language instruction. The instruction for the experimental group
test included two reading passages with various question types, such incorporated ALSs as outlined by Bonwell and Eison (1991), along
as multiple-choice, True/False/Not Given, and matching headings. with additional strategies from Harmin and Toth (2006). Activities
The readability of these texts was verified using the Flesch Reading such as questioning, role-playing, peer teaching, and problem-
Ease formula to ensure equivalence in difficulty, and both tests solving were utilized to promote active engagement through pre-
were piloted to establish reliability. These reading assessments reading, while-reading, and post-reading activities. For instance,
facilitated the measurement of comprehension gains resulting from during questioning exercises, students collaborated in pairs to
the intervention. actively discuss the content, while role-playing enabled them to
To investigate the potential mediating role of affective factors explore the meaning of the text together. In contrast, the control
between ALSs and reading comprehension, students’ engagement, group engaged in teacher-centered, explicit instruction, focusing
enjoyment, and motivation were assessed (Supplementary on skimming, scanning, and translation techniques without any
Appendix A). Engagement, adapted from Wang et al. (2016), interactive activities, using the same reading materials.
utilized a 33-item questionnaire to evaluate behavioral, In the post-instruction phase, both groups took the same
emotional, cognitive, and social dimensions, demonstrating reading comprehension post-test. Following the post-test,
strong construct validity and internal consistency. Motivation, questionnaires assessing engagement, enjoyment, and motivation
adapted from Gardner (1985) Attitudes/Motivation Test Battery, were distributed to all participants. Additionally, semi-structured
is widely employed in EFL research, measuring motivational interviews with selected participants from the experimental group
intensity, attitude, and desire to learn English through a 19-item provided qualitative data on learners’ perceptions of ALS. The
questionnaire, which exhibits acceptable construct and predictive interview responses were recorded, transcribed, and thematically
validity (Gardner, 1985; Tremblay and Gardner, 1995). Enjoyment, analyzed to complement the quantitative findings.
adapted from Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) Foreign Language
Enjoyment (FLE) Scale, employed a six-item questionnaire to assess
overall classroom enjoyment, demonstrating good face validity and 3.5 Data analysis
internal consistency (Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014; Lee, 2022). To
ensure appropriateness, the questionnaires were translated into A mixed-methods approach was employed in the data
Persian and reviewed by EFL professors for content validity. All analysis, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative techniques.
questionnaires exhibited acceptable internal consistency reliability Quantitative data from the OPT, reading comprehension tests,
scores in this study. and questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics

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TABLE 2 Active learning strategies.

No of Reading Text Active learning Additional strategy Purpose

instructional strategy Harmin and Toth
Session Bonwell and Eison (2006)
(1991)
1 Whistling in La Questioning Voting questions (p. 132) • To gather the attention of students
Gomera (p. 27) Paired Reading (p. 189) • To structure high engagement reading

2 Reading for Peer teaching (p. 50) Know and Want to Know (p. • To build on students’ knowledge and questions.
comprehension 158) • To ask students to exercise creative thinking
Brainstorming (p. 262) skills in a content area.

3 The Mogi of Easter Cooperative learning (p. 43) Make a Prediction (p. 160) • To motivate students in a topic and to exercise
Island Class Leaders (p. 77) their ability to think ahead
Cooperative Reading Groups • To give students class managing responsibility
(p. 193) • To inspire students to study readings
cooperatively and supportively

4 How I made my first Computer-based instruction Set of Speakers (p. 211) • To select speakers efficiently
viral (p. 33) Under explain and Learning • To maximize thoughtful involvement and
Pairs (p. 182) minimize student frustration

5 A disaster in the Problem solving (p. 38) Mini task (p. 223) • To engage students in review tasks
making Think Aloud (p. 184) • To give students a model of how they might
think through a problem

6 Social organization Discussion Comparing (p. 258) • To advance skills of discrimination and
among animals (p. 29) Learning Map (p. 225) perception.
Paper Exchange (p. 226) • To review the relationships between concepts
and ideas
• To arrange for students to help one another
improve written work

7 History of sport Writing in class Note-Taking Template (p. • To keep students engaged in the content as it is
(p. 35) 174) presented
Summarizing (p. 260) • To encourage students to think
comprehensively about a topic

8 Six thinking hats Role playing (p. 47) Teacher Role-Play (p. 230) • To provide all students to teach part of the
Directed Reading (p. 195) course content to others
• To keep students engaged and focused on
reading material

9 A variety of writing Visual-based instruction Visual Aids and Graphic • To help students keep their attention focused
systems (p. 33) Organizers (p. 170) • To make learning more vivid and to respect the
Mental Pictures (p. 287) needs of visual learners

10 Immigration: an Debates Best choice debate (p. 240) • To promote open-minded consideration of
introduction (p. 45) Self-selected learning reports controversial issues
(p. 386) • To individualize learning reports

(mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics. To confirm student engagement, adding depth to the understanding of learner
the homogeneity of the experimental and control groups, an perceptions in an EFL context.
independent-samples t-test was conducted on the OPT scores.
To examine the effectiveness of ALSs, a one-way ANCOVA
was applied to the post-test reading comprehension scores, with 4 Results
pre-test scores as covariates. Normality tests for skewness and
kurtosis were conducted to validate the data distribution for 4.1 Quantitative analysis
each variable. Regarding engagement, enjoyment, and motivation
scores, normality was not assumed; therefore, a Mann-Whitney The quantitative data were analyzed for normality and
test was conducted to compare the median scores between homogeneity to determine the appropriateness of parametric and
non-parametric tests. Normality was assessed by calculating the
groups. For qualitative data, responses from the semi-structured
skewness and kurtosis indices for the OPT, as well as the reading
interviews were coded and analyzed following Dornyei (2007)
comprehension pre-test and post-test scores, and the questionnaire
three-level system of open, axial, and selective coding, using scores for engagement, enjoyment, and motivation. The results
MAXQDA software to identify recurring themes. The integration indicated that the skewness and kurtosis values for the OPT and
of quantitative and qualitative data provided a comprehensive reading comprehension scores fell within the acceptable range
analysis of the impact of ALSs on reading comprehension and of ± 1.96, suggesting that these distributions could be assumed

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to be approximately normal (Raykov and Marcoulides, 2008). This analysis demonstrated that the experimental and control
Consequently, these variables were analyzed using parametric groups had comparable baseline abilities in English proficiency, as
techniques, including independent-samples t-tests and ANCOVA. measured by the OPT. This finding validates the assignment of
However, the distributions for engagement and motivation participants to these groups for subsequent testing.
exhibited skewness and kurtosis indices outside the acceptable
range, indicating significant deviations from normality. As a result, 4.1.1 Analysis of reading comprehension
non-parametric Mann-Whitney U tests were employed for the To investigate the first research question—whether
engagement, enjoyment, and motivation scores. Table 3 presents ALSs significantly affect reading comprehension among
the skewness and kurtosis indices for all measures utilized in the intermediate female EFL learners in public high schools in
study. Mazandaran—a One-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Homogeneity of variances was assessed for all measures was conducted. This analysis facilitated a comparison of post-
using Levene’s test. The results indicated that the variances were test reading comprehension scores between the experimental
homogeneous for the OPT and reading comprehension pre- and control groups while controlling for pre-test scores.
and post-tests (p > 0.05), supporting the assumption that these The first null hypothesis (H01), which posits that ALSs have
measures could be compared between groups using parametric no significant effect on reading comprehension, was tested
in this analysis.
tests. However, the variance for engagement and motivation scores
Before interpreting the results of the ANCOVA, three statistical
was non-homogeneous, reinforcing the decision to employ non-
assumptions were verified: (1) the linearity of the relationship
parametric tests for these measures.
between pre-test and post-test reading comprehension scores, (2)
Furthermore, to confirm the equivalence of the experimental
the homogeneity of regression slopes, and (3) the homogeneity
and control groups prior to intervention, an independent-samples
of variances. The assumption of linearity was supported, as
t-test was conducted on the OPT scores. The mean scores for the
indicated by a significant F-statistic [F(1, 67) = 196.76, p < 0.05,
experimental group (M = 35.10, SD = 2.15) and the control group
η2 = 0.754], which demonstrates a strong linear relationship
(M = 35.23, SD = 2.08) were very similar, indicating comparable between the pre-test and post-test scores. This finding suggests
baseline levels of general English proficiency. Table 4 presents the that the covariate (pre-test score) is suitable for adjusting the
descriptive statistics for the OPT scores in each group. post-test scores. Table 6 presents a summary of the linearity
The results of the independent-samples t-test, as presented test.
in Table 5, confirmed that there was no significant difference The homogeneity of regression slopes was assessed by
between the groups regarding OPT scores [t(78) = 0.267, p > 0.05]. examining the interaction between the covariate (pre-test) and
Consequently, the groups were considered homogeneous in terms the independent variable (group). The results revealed a non-
of general language proficiency prior to the intervention, ensuring significant interaction [F(1, 76) = 1.32, p > 0.05, η2 = 0.017],
that any differences observed in the post-test could be attributed to which supports the assumption that the relationship between pre-
the experimental treatment. test and post-test scores did not differ significantly across groups.

TABLE 3 Skewness and kurtosis indices of normality for study measures.

Measure Group N Skewness Std. error Kurtosis Std. error

OPT Experimental 40 0.620 0.374 –0.978 0.733

Control 40 0.690 0.374 –0.747 0.733

Pre-test Experimental 40 0.527 0.374 –0.533 0.733

Control 40 0.393 0.374 –1.009 0.733

Post-test Experimental 40 0.423 0.374 –0.808 0.733

Control 40 0.395 0.374 –0.859 0.733

Engagement Experimental 40 0.713 0.374 2.480 0.733

Control 40 -0.027 0.374 –1.019 0.733

Enjoyment Experimental 40 –0.238 0.374 –1.245 0.733

Control 40 -0.136 0.374 –1.142 0.733

Motivation Experimental 40 1.129 0.374 4.449 0.733

Control 40 0.134 0.374 –0.080 0.733

TABLE 4 Descriptive statistics for oxford placement test scores by group.

Group N Mean SD Std. error mean

Control 40 35.23 2.082 0.329

Experimental 40 35.10 2.158 0.341

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TABLE 5 Independent-samples t-test for OPT scores by group. 4.1.2 Analysis of engagement, enjoyment, and
motivation
Levene’s test for equality T-test for equality of
of variances means To address the second research question—whether ALSs
influenced engagement, enjoyment, and motivation among
F Sig.
intermediate female EFL learners—a non-parametric Mann-
0.011 0.917 Whitney U test was conducted for each variable. Given the
non-normal distribution of the data, as indicated by skewness
and kurtosis indices outside the range of ± 1.96 (see Table 3 in
This finding indicates that the influence of the pre-test on the the previous section), the Mann-Whitney U test was chosen to
post-test was consistent for both the experimental and control compare the median scores between the experimental and control
groups. Table 7 provides a summary of this analysis. Finally, groups. This analysis also tested the second null hypothesis (H02),
Levene’s test confirmed the homogeneity of variances for post-test which posits that there is no significant difference in engagement,
reading comprehension scores [F(1, 75) = 1.05, p > 0.05], thereby enjoyment, or motivation between the groups.
supporting the use of ANCOVA. The Mann-Whitney U test (Table 9) revealed that the
After verifying the assumptions, the adjusted post-test reading median score for engagement in the experimental group
comprehension scores were compared between the experimental (Mdn = 3.09) was slightly lower than that of the control group
and control groups. The experimental group’s adjusted mean post- (Mdn = 3.14). However, this difference was not statistically
test score (M = 12.87, SE = 0.246) was higher than that of the control significant (U = 782.50, z = -0.304, p = 0.761), and the effect size
group (M = 11.58, SE = 0.246), indicating an improvement due was negligible (GMRBC = 0.039). Therefore, the results do not
to ALSs. The ANCOVA results, presented in Table 8, revealed a provide sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis regarding
statistically significant effect of ALSs on reading comprehension engagement, indicating that ALSs did not have a significant impact
[F(1, 77) = 13.73, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.151]. Consequently, the on engagement levels compared to traditional instruction.
first null hypothesis was rejected, supporting the conclusion that The analysis of enjoyment scores indicated that the median
ALSs had a significant positive impact on reading comprehension enjoyment score for the experimental group (Mdn = 4.50) was
scores. slightly higher than that of the control group (Mdn = 4.25).
The results indicate that ALSs significantly contributed to However, the Mann-Whitney U test revealed no statistically
improvements in reading comprehension for the experimental significant difference between the two groups (U = 770.00, z = -
group. These findings suggest that the implementation 0.787, p = 0.432), with a weak effect size (GMRBC = 0.101).
of active learning techniques can positively influence Consequently, no significant difference in enjoyment was observed
reading outcomes for intermediate EFL learners in high between the experimental and control groups, and the null
school settings. hypothesis regarding enjoyment is retained.

TABLE 6 Testing assumption of linearity between pre-test and post-test reading comprehension scores.

Source Sum of squares df Mean F Sig. η2

square
Posttest * pretest (combined) 596.937 12 49.745 17.091 0.000 –

Linearity 572.709 1 572.709 196.763 0.000 0.754

Deviation from linearity 24.227 11 2.202 0.757 0.681 –

Within groups 195.013 67 2.911

TABLE 7 Testing homogeneity of regression slopes for reading comprehension by group with pre-test as covariate.

Source Type III sum of df Mean F Sig. η2

squares square
Group 0.019 1 0.019 0.008 0.929 0.000

Pretest 515.584 1 515.584 214.289 0.000 0.738

Group * Pretest 3.197 1 3.197 1.329 0.253 0.017

Error 182.858 76 2.406

TABLE 8 ANCOVA results for post-test reading comprehension by group with pre-test as covariate.

Source Type III sum of df Mean F Sig. η2

squares square
Pretest 583.845 1 583.845 241.628 0.000 0.758

Group 33.186 1 33.186 13.734 0.000 0.151

Error 186.055 77 2.416

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TABLE 9 Mann-Whitney U tests for engagement, enjoyment, and motivation by group.

Variable Group N Mean rank Sum of ranks Median z Sig. GMRBC

Engagement Experimental 40 39.71 1588.50 3.09 –0.304 0.761 0.039

Control 40 41.29 1651.50 3.14

Enjoyment Experimental 40 42.53 1701.00 4.50 –0.787 0.432 0.101

Control 40 38.48 1539.00 4.25

Motivation Experimental 40 42.13 1685.00 3.05 –0.628 0.530 0.081

Control 40 38.88 1555.00 3.03

The results of the Mann-Whitney U test for motivation scores conducted with the learners to confirm the accuracy of interview
indicated that the median motivation score of the experimental transcripts. The coding scheme and a selection of interview
group (Mdn = 3.05) was nearly identical to that of the control transcripts were also reviewed by a peer researcher for feedback
group (Mdn = 3.03). Similarly, no significant difference was on clarity and consistency. However, due to resource constraints,
detected between the groups (U = 770.00, z = -0.628, p = 0.530), formal inter-rater reliability measures were not employed across
with a weak effect size (GMRBC = 0.081). Consequently, the the entire dataset. The following section provides a comprehensive
null hypothesis regarding motivation is retained, indicating no examination of each theme, focusing on how ALSs contributed to
significant difference in motivation levels between the groups. or hindered learners’ engagement and comprehension.
The results regarding engagement, enjoyment, and motivation
indicate that ALSs did not yield a statistically significant difference 4.2.1 Positive perceptions of active learning
in these areas for the experimental group when compared to The qualitative data revealed a strong theme: students held
the control group. Consequently, the second null hypothesis positive perceptions of ALS. They consistently described ALS as
was supported, suggesting that the instructional method (active transforming the classroom into a collaborative, engaging, and
learning versus traditional) had a minimal impact on these affective motivating environment, leading to increased enjoyment and
variables among intermediate EFL learners. participation. Students reported heightened engagement due to the
interactive and student-led nature of ALS, fostering a sense of active
contribution rather than passive reception.
4.2 Qualitative analysis ALS fostered collaboration and increased motivation among
students. Hasti noted that student engagement was strong from
The qualitative phase of this study explored the perceptions of the start of the course and strengthened over time, contributing
intermediate female EFL learners regarding ALSs in their reading to a network of peer support as ALS encouraged students to seek
comprehension classes. To facilitate this exploration, questions guidance from one another. Fatemeh highlighted the value of peer
were vetted by professors prior to conducting WhatsApp voice feedback in promoting interaction, describing a session where
message interviews, and participants were informed about the students exchanged and discussed individual assignments. These
study’s purpose. After meticulously verifying the transcriptions interactions underscore the fundamental role of collaboration,
the voice recordings for accuracy, the raw data was analyzed by allowing students to benefit from mutual support and diverse
identifying, naming, and categorizing the essential ideas related to perspectives. Furthermore, students reported increased motivation
the research question. The representation of the recorded interview and enthusiasm due to the novelty and variety ALS introduced.
data through identified concepts and categories was examined Niloofar reported an increased passion for language learning,
during the open coding process, which was followed by a re-reading stating, “Yes, my passion for language learning has increased. . .”
of the texts in the axial coding phase. Subsequently, connections while Fatemeh described entering each session with anticipation
were established between the identified concepts and categories by of something new and exciting, knowing that something new and
expanding upon one of the most significant categories. In the final exciting awaited us. This positive learning environment stimulated
step, one core category was selected based on the findings from students’ desire to learn and actively engage.
the previous two steps, and all other categories were linked to this The interactive and student-centered nature of ALS fostered a
core category, which facilitated the final analysis. To analyze the positive classroom environment characterized by friendliness and
interview data, a systematic coding process was employed, which support. Participants consistently described the class as a safe space
included open coding (resulting in 127 initial codes), axial coding where they felt encouraged to take risks and express ideas without
(grouping codes into 22 subcategories), and selective coding. From fear of judgment. Mobina highlighted this, stating, “Class fostered
this process, four major themes emerged: positive attitudes toward a friendly atmosphere, which was very good.” This supportive
reading, negative attitudes toward reading, positive outcomes of environment was central to their learning experience, making them
active learning, and effective teacher performance. These themes feel more at ease and willing to participate, aligning with social
ultimately converged into the core category of the study: learners’ constructivist theories emphasizing the importance of a safe and
perceptions of active learning in the reading course. To ensure the collaborative environment for deeper engagement. Furthermore,
accuracy of the qualitative data, member checking was conducted. engagement was fostered through diverse activities and learning
To ensure the trustworthiness of the qualitative data, in addition to methods, ranging from group discussions to role-playing, offering
revising codes and reviewing of transcripts, member checking was multiple avenues for interaction and learning. Saghar noted that,

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“The class activities did not focus on a single student. Most of created a safe and respectful environment enabling deeper
the time, everyone participated, whether in role-playing or class engagement with the material.
discussions.” By incorporating various ALS techniques, the teacher Feedback and guidance were also identified as key components
effectively addressed diverse learning preferences and prevented of effective teacher performance, significantly contributing
monotony, maintaining the entire class’s engagement, in contrast to students’ comprehension and learning outcomes. Students
to traditional lecture-based instruction. appreciated timely and constructive feedback, helping them
ALS also fostered a sense of personal accountability, motivating identify areas for improvement and feeling acknowledged for
students to actively participate, share their knowledge, and consider their progress. Fatemeh shared that, “Of course, she guided us and
diverse perspectives within collaborative pairs and groups. Niloofar occasionally provided feedback to enhance our work. It was beneficial
highlighted this collective responsibility, stating, “We learned to to understand what I was doing well and what required more effort.”
respect one another’s viewpoints, which made the learning experience This constructive feedback guided students toward improved
more meaningful.” Students believed ALS fostered a learning performance and reinforced their motivation, encouraging them
environment where they actively learned from each other, built to view learning as a process of growth. Furthermore, the teacher’s
upon shared ideas, and enhanced their understanding of the proficiency in employing ALS that promoted group interaction and
reading material. Overall, these positive perceptions underscore peer feedback significantly enriched the collaborative atmosphere.
the effectiveness of ALS in creating a collaborative, motivating, Hasti, reflecting on the value of role-plays and group discussions,
and engaging classroom. The methods’ diversity, opportunities for stated, “I really liked the class, particularly the role plays and group
peer interaction, and supportive environment all contributed to discussions. These activities provided an excellent opportunity
increased learner engagement and motivation, demonstrating the to observe how others interpreted the text and to think about it
benefits of ALS in EFL reading comprehension. differently.” By structuring opportunities for peer interaction,
the teacher fostered collaborative knowledge construction,
4.2.2 Effective teacher performance in active gaining insights from diverse perspectives. In summary, effective
learning environment teacher performance in an active learning environment relies on
The qualitative data also highlighted the crucial role of diverse instructional methods, a facilitative approach, supportive
Effective Teacher Performance in an Active Learning Environment, interactions, and formative feedback. These elements contribute
emphasizing the teacher’s impact on creating a conducive and to a classroom atmosphere where students feel motivated,
supportive learning space for ALS. Participants indicated that the understood, and actively engaged, underscoring the significance
teacher’s diverse instructional methods, adaptability, and facilitative of the teacher’s role in fostering a productive active learning
approach were central to their positive classroom experiences. environment and reinforcing the advantages of ALS in enhancing
The teacher’s responsibilities extended beyond content delivery to comprehension and promoting learner autonomy.
creating an engaging atmosphere where students felt encouraged to
fully participate. The teacher’s approach enhanced understanding, 4.2.3 Learner views on reading comprehension
with students valuing the diverse ALS employed to accommodate and active learning challenges
various learning activities. Niloofar highlighted the positive impact The final theme, Views on Reading Comprehension and
of these methods, stating, “The class activities and strategies were Active Learning Challenges, explored students’ perspectives on
diverse, which prevented boredom. Each session felt unique, helping the influence of ALS on their reading comprehension skills,
to maintain my interest throughout the course.” This approach as well as any obstacles encountered. While many reported
not only captured students’ attention but also accommodated positive changes, they also identified challenges related to text
their diverse learning preferences, making each class session feel complexity, vocabulary, time limitations, and group dynamics.
unique and engaging. Many participants stated that ALS contributed to enhanced reading
Furthermore, students appreciated the teacher’s facilitative role skills and academic progress, enabling them to approach reading
in fostering active participation and independent learning. By tasks more effectively. Students highlighted improvements in
providing opportunities for students to take responsibility for understanding, vocabulary, and confidence. Mobina expressed that,
their learning, the teacher encouraged independence and self- “It was extremely beneficial that we examined all aspects of the
reliance. Tina noted how group work, in particular, allowed for reading. I believe my reading skills have improved because we focused
exchanging ideas and helping one another, stating, “I think some on various parts, rather than solely on translation.” Similarly,
activities, such as group work, were useful for exchanging ideas Niloofar emphasized the practical applications of the strategies,
and for helping one another. The teacher encouraged us to solve explaining they now enabled her to manage complex passages
problems collaboratively, which enhanced our learning experience.” more effectively: “The techniques we learned were practical and
This fostered autonomy and a sense of ownership over their beneficial for me. I can now read faster and comprehend more,
educational progress. A recurring sub-theme was the teacher’s even when the text is challenging.” These reflections highlight that
supportive demeanor, which students consistently identified as active learning can improve reading comprehension by equipping
key to enhancing motivation and confidence. Negin remarked students with techniques that encourage analytical and strategic
on the reduction of anxiety and increased engagement fostered text engagement, enhancing their confidence and ability to tackle
by the teacher’s calmness and openness to questions, stating, more challenging materials.
“Your teaching was characterized by calmness and intimacy, which However, despite these benefits, students also identified several
reduced my anxiety and encouraged me to be more engaged. I challenges that occasionally hindered their engagement and
no longer felt nervous about participating in class discussions.” progress. A common issue was the complexity of the reading
This supportive approach, aligning with constructivist principles, passages, which some found overwhelming. Fatemeh described

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struggling with dense texts, stating, “Some passages were difficult to whether these strategies genuinely empower EFL learners to engage
fully understand, especially when they contained an excessive number with diverse perspectives within their specific contexts.
of complex sentences or ideas. At times, it was difficult to maintain Contrary to expectations and much of the theoretical
focus.” Additionally, vocabulary difficulty was often cited, with literature (e.g., Chi and Wylie, 2014; Hodges, 2020; Venton and
unfamiliar terms challenging their ability to grasp the main ideas. Pompano, 2021), the quantitative results revealed no significant
Mobina shared, “The reading passages contained many challenging differences in students’ engagement, motivation, and enjoyment.
and unfamiliar words. At times, I struggled to understand the This discrepancy raises the question of whether cultural and
meanings of certain terms, which was quite frustrating." These contextual factors influenced learning preferences and classroom
vocabulary challenges suggest a need for supplementary resources dynamics, ultimately mediating the effectiveness of ALSs in
when faced with unfamiliar words. Time constraints also emerged, enhancing learners’ affective responses. As noted earlier, many
with Niloofar mentioning feeling pressured to complete readings Iranian classrooms are traditionally teacher-centered, with students
quickly: “The time allocated to read the entire text wasn’t always accustomed to a passive learning role (Mayer, 2002; Blaz, 2022).
enough. I felt that I needed additional time to fully comprehend This cultural predisposition may have affected students’ responses
everything.” This limited timeframe may have hindered their ability to ALSs, as shifting from passive to active roles could require
to effectively apply active learning techniques. Finally, students a substantial period of adjustment and the development of new
identified issues related to group cooperation. Hasti expressed academic habits. Consequently, even though the data do not
frustration with uncooperative group dynamics, stating, "In some show significant changes in engagement, motivation, or enjoyment,
groups, a few individuals were unwilling to assist or participate, this may reflect the specific learning context rather than an
which made it more challenging for the rest of us to complete inherent limitation of ALSs. As Yusuf et al. (2024) have shown,
the work effectively." These dynamics may have diminished the cultural values can impact student responses to various pedagogical
overall effectiveness of ALS. In conclusion, Learner Views regarding approaches. Building on this, the specific ALSs employed in
Reading Comprehension and Active Learning Challenges indicate this study may not have been optimally suited to the learners’
that while students recognized significant benefits, they also faced cultural backgrounds and preferences. For instance, role-play,
difficulties related to complex texts, vocabulary, limited time, while intended to promote participation, may have appeared
and group collaboration. These challenges highlight the need for intimidating to students accustomed to formal classroom settings.
ongoing support and adjustments to address specific barriers to From a social constructivist perspective (Vygotsky and Cole,
engagement and comprehension in active learning environments. 1978), learning is most effective within a learner’s Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). If the role-play, for instance,
pushed students too far beyond their comfort zones, it could have
increased anxiety. Recent research by Howell (2021) underscores
5 Discussion the importance of considering learners’ experiences when selecting
ALSs. While statistically significant differences in engagement,
This study explored the impact of ALSs on reading motivation, and enjoyment were not observed, qualitative data
comprehension, engagement, motivation, and enjoyment among suggest that the implemented ALSs initiated a positive shift in
intermediate Iranian EFL learners, as well as their perceptions student perceptions. Students consistently highlighted the benefits
of ALSs in reading. Given the prevalent use of passive learning of group work and interactive activities, noting how collaboration
methods in Iranian EFL education, this research aimed to evaluate and peer support facilitated understanding, aligning with both
the potential of ALSs to enhance comprehension and student social constructivist principles and research demonstrating active
attitudes. While the following discussion considers the findings in learning’s ability to foster positive attitudes (e.g., Lumpkin et al.,
relation to existing literature, the emphasis is on the theoretical 2015; Demirci, 2017). Furthermore, students valued the teacher’s
underpinnings and cultural differences that may explain the facilitative role, indicating that varied methods and supportive
observed results. Consistent with prior research (e.g., Hovland, guidance increased their motivation and confidence—a finding
2019; Güneyli, 2008; Er et al., 2012), the experimental group supported by research highlighting the importance of a facilitative
using ALSs showed significantly higher post-test scores in reading teacher in active learning environments (Blaz, 2022; Cattaneo,
comprehension, supporting the claim that ALSs promote deeper 2017). These subjective experiences captured through qualitative
engagement and processing. insights provide a valuable understanding of the process of change,
Aligned with Vygotsky and Cole (1978) social constructivist suggesting that even without immediate, observable behavioral
theory, the collaborative elements inherent in ALSs, such as peer shifts, ALSs can create a more interactive and supportive learning
teaching and discussions, foster cognitive development through environment (Detlor et al., 2012) and potentially lead to more
social interaction, facilitating meaning-making and knowledge positive perceptions of learning. This is particularly relevant given
construction. This aligns with the idea that learning is a social the relatively short duration of the study (ten sessions), which
process where knowledge is co-constructed. While our study may have limited the observable impact on these affective factors
showed improved reading comprehension scores, further research (Nurbavliyev et al., 2022).
is warranted to explore the extent to which ALSs cultivate critical The interplay between constructivist principles and the
analysis and challenge existing power dynamics, going beyond test prevailing educational culture in Iranian EFL settings could induce
score improvements (Bean and Melzer, 2021; Hajhosseini et al., cognitive dissonance as students accustomed to teacher-centered
2016; Hamouda and Tarlochan, 2015; Kim et al., 2013; Nelson and methods adjust to active learning. This pedagogical tradition,
Crow, 2014; Sgambi et al., 2019). The demonstrated benefits of characterized by rote memorization and deference to authority,
ALSs across various language skills (e.g., Ashraf et al., 2013; Bean may clash with the active and participatory nature of ALSs.
and Melzer, 2021; Askia, 2016) necessitate a critical examination of This potential discomfort further explains the lack of significant

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immediate impact on engagement, motivation, and enjoyment. To that can capture these localized and immediate changes in student
reduce this cultural mismatch, future ALS implementation should attitudes.
carefully scaffold activities, initially incorporating elements familiar It is essential to notice that despite these positive perceptions,
to students, such as structured group discussions with clearly some students reported challenges associated with ALSs.
defined roles and tasks, before introducing more open-ended or A common difficulty was managing complex texts and
unfamiliar activities like unscripted role-plays. The discrepancy unfamiliar vocabulary, which some students felt hindered their
between these findings and the broader ALS literature highlights comprehension. This aligns with previous studies, Lin (2017) and
the critical role of cultural and contextual factors in mediating the Lipson and Wixson (1997) that show vocabulary difficulties can
effectiveness of ALSs, particularly in influencing learners’ affective be a major barrier to reading comprehension, particularly for EFL
responses. Future research should investigate the long-term effects learners. Addressing this issue may require additional scaffolding
of ALS implementation, while also considering the impact of strategies to support vocabulary acquisition and comprehension,
teacher training, classroom environment, and culturally sensitive especially for students who are new to active learning methods.
adaptations of ALSs to maximize their potential benefits for Iranian Time constraints were another challenge highlighted by students,
EFL learners. To maximize motivation within ALSs, instructors who reported feeling pressured to complete readings within limited
should prioritize autonomy, competence, and relatedness, key timeframes. This feedback suggests that some ALSs, while effective
elements of Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 2012). This in promoting engagement, may impose additional demands on
can be achieved by offering students choices, designing achievable students’ time and cognitive resources. To address these challenges,
activities with positive feedback, and incorporating collaborative instructors could consider modifying the pace of ALS activities or
tasks. providing additional support to help students adapt to the active
While these responses suggest that ALSs positively influenced learning format. Overall, the qualitative findings reflect a generally
some students’ attitudes toward reading, the absence of statistically positive reception of ALSs, with students recognizing both the
significant changes in overall motivation, engagement, and benefits and challenges of this approach. These perceptions align
enjoyment requires careful interpretation. The qualitative data with studies indicating that active learning positively influences
may be tapping in to a more immediate response to the learning students’ attitudes and perceptions by fostering a more interactive,
experience, while the quantitative measures capture a more global student-centered learning environment (Özer, 2020; Cook and
and potentially delayed evaluation. The discrepancy between Hazelwood, 2002). However, the challenges identified by students
the two could be explained by several factors. First, students suggest that careful planning and adaptation are essential to ensure
may have experienced localized improvements in specific aspects that ALSs are both effective and accessible for all learners. This
of engagement or motivation during the ALS activities, but suggests teachers to select and adapt ALSs to suit the needs and
these improvements may not have been substantial enough to proficiency levels of their students.
translate into a statistically significant shift in their overall scores The findings of this study have significant implications for
on standardized questionnaires. The questionnaires, designed to EFL teaching and learning, particularly in contexts like Iran,
measure overall perceptions, might have lacked the sensitivity where traditional, teacher-centered approaches are prevalent. This
to detect these context-specific changes. It’s possible students research supports the adoption of ALSs in EFL classrooms, with
felt more engaged during a particular group activity or more a specific focus on elements that foster intrinsic motivation
motivated to read a certain passage, yet their overall perception of and engagement. By shifting from passive to active learning,
reading enjoyment remained largely unchanged. Future research students can develop essential language proficiency skills, including
should employ more granular measures of motivation and critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration. The positive
engagement, such as observational protocols or open-ended impact of ALSs on reading comprehension underscores their
questions. Interventions should also help students connect ALS potential to enhance language skills that require higher-order
experiences to their broader learning goals, for instance, through cognitive processing. The qualitative findings further suggest
reflective journals or discussions on the benefits of active learning. that ALSs can contribute to a more supportive and interactive
Costa and Hauck Filho (2019) point out the limitations of self- classroom environment, even if immediate quantitative changes
report questionnaires in capturing the complexities of individual in motivation, engagement, and enjoyment are not apparent.
experiences due to response styles and generalized answers. Second, To maximize the benefits of ALSs, teachers should consider
the positive impacts of ALSs on attitudes may require a longer incorporating diverse activities tailored to various learning
period to fully manifest, leading to measurable changes in overall preferences and gradually introduce students to the active
perceptions. As Lim (2024) suggests, quantitative data provide a learning format to facilitate a smoother transition. For instructors,
snapshot in time, while qualitative data offer richer, longitudinal this highlights the importance of creating a positive, student-
insights. The students’ immediate positive experiences might centered learning environment that values participation and
represent the initial stages of a shift in attitudes that would become fosters a sense of community. As Ginting (2021) suggests, this
more pronounced over time. Finally, it’s important to acknowledge requires providing consistent feedback and promoting open
that the qualitative data may over-represent the experiences of communication. Furthermore, it involves identifying individual
those who benefited most from ALSs. The interviews, while learning challenges and varying levels of prior knowledge,
providing rich detail, might not capture the perspectives of students and encouraging collaborative, team-based activities to enhance
who found the strategies less helpful or even detrimental. The motivation and involvement (Munna and Kalam, 2021). Finally, the
qualitative findings provide valuable insights into how ALSs can study highlights the need to address common challenges associated
effectively promote learning, but they should not be interpreted with ALSs, such as vocabulary difficulties and time constraints. For
as representing the experiences of all students. Therefore, future EFL learners who may struggle with the demands of active learning,
research should implement more sensitive quantitative measures instructors should implement scaffolding techniques and provide

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Majdi et al. 10.3389/feduc.2025.1539722

language support to ensure equitable benefits from this approach. group discussions. Theoretically, these findings call for refining
Overall, this research indicates that, with appropriate adaptations, active learning models to better account for cultural factors. Future
ALSs can provide a valuable framework for enhancing reading research should explore targeted adaptation strategies, investigate
comprehension and promoting positive attitudes toward learning the long-term effects of ALS interventions on both cognitive and
in EFL classrooms. affective outcomes using granular measures to capture localized
changes in student attitudes and engagement. Interventions should
also connect ALS experiences to broader learning goals. Further
6 Limitation studies are needed to determine how best to train teachers in
designing culturally responsive ALSs. The aim is to empower
The findings of this study should be interpreted in light of instructors with effective strategies for using active learning within
the following limitations. First, the limited generalizability due to diverse EFL settings. Furthermore, future studies should investigate
the study’s focus on Iranian EFL learners in a specific geographic which aspects of learning—beyond just reading comprehension—
location (Mazandaran) and educational level, coupled with the are most amenable in this particular context.
all-female sample, restricts the applicability of the results to
other populations and contexts. To address this, future research
should employ random sampling across broader demographics and Data availability statement
settings, expand the scope of ALSs to include other language skills
(writing, speaking) and diverse educational levels, and incorporate The original contributions presented in this study are included
mixed-gender samples across various learning environments in this article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be
(traditional, online, blended). directed to the corresponding author.
Second, the lack of data on teacher perceptions limits our
understanding of ALS feasibility and classroom dynamics. Future
studies should incorporate teacher perspectives through interviews
or observations to better understand implementation. Ethics statement
Third, the relatively short intervention duration, limited by
curriculum schedules, may not have allowed for the observation of Ethical considerations were carefully followed throughout the
sustained engagement and motivation, or for measurable changes study, in accordance with the principles outlined by BERA (2011).
in these variables to fully manifest. Therefore, future research Informed consent was obtained from both the students and
should examine the effects of extended ALS interventions to school administrators prior to participation. All respondents were
identify the optimal duration for maximizing learning outcomes thoroughly briefed on the study’s purpose and procedures. The
and investigate long-term effects, particularly in blended or studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation
online environments. and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for
Fourth, while member checking and peer review were utilized participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal
to enhance the trustworthiness of the qualitative findings, the guardians/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained
absence of formal inter-rater reliability measures represents a from the individual(s), and minor(s)’ legal guardian/next of kin,
limitation. To enhance the rigor of future research, studies for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data
should ensure inter-rater reliability through independent coding included in this article.
by multiple researchers, with disagreements resolved through
discussion and consensus.
Author contributions
7 Conclusion ZM: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MK:
Writing – review & editing. AM-Z: Writing – review & editing.
This study investigated ALSs and their impact on Iranian
EFL learners’ reading comprehension, engagement, motivation,
and enjoyment. While ALSs significantly improved reading
comprehension, quantitative data revealed a more complex picture,
Funding
with no significant differences in engagement or motivation,
The author(s) declare that financial support was received
contrasting with students’ positive perceptions of the interactive
for the research and/or publication of this article. The research
learning environment. These mixed results highlights the critical
was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial
role of cultural context and the significance of the limitations
relationships.
of relying solely on quantitative measures. While existing
literature often presents ALSs as universally beneficial, this study
suggests that their impact is mediated by cultural background
and implementation strategies. Therefore, teachers should adapt Conflict of interest
ALSs to suit student proficiency levels, using scaffolding and
creating student-centered environments that foster autonomy, The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
competence, and relatedness. To ease the transition, activities absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
should initially incorporate familiar elements, such as structured construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Generative AI statement reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
The authors declare that no Generative AI was used in the endorsed by the publisher.
creation of this manuscript.

Publisher’s note Supplementary material

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated online at: [Link]
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the 1539722/full#supplementary-material

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