Module-1 TIMBER
TIMBER
● The term "timber" originates from the Old English word "timbrian," meaning "to build."
● Thus, timber refers to wood that is suitable for construction, carpentry, and various engineering
applications.
● As a building material, timber boasts numerous valuable properties, including low thermal
conductivity, ease of mechanical processing, low bulk density, and relatively high strength.
USES OF TIMBER
Timber has a wide range of uses, including:
● Constructing door and window frames, shutters, and roofing materials.
● Creating formwork for cement concrete, arch centering, and scaffolding.
● Manufacturing furniture, agricultural tools, sports equipment, and musical instruments.
● Building railway coaches and wagons.
● Producing toys, carved artworks, matches, and other small items.
● Making railway sleepers and packing cases.
● Constructing temporary bridges and boats.
Section of Tree
STRUCTURE OF TREE
TYPES OF TREES:
Trees are classified into two groups depending upon
growth pattern.
Endogenous trees:
The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal
fibrous mass are called endogenous trees. Example:
bamboo, palm, cane.
Exogenous trees :
The trees which grow in out wards across
horizontal section of stem (under the bark) are
called exogenous trees.
These trees are only fit for engineering
construction.
Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two
types.
Conifers or Evergreen (Trees that grow
crowns):
● They give soft wood.
● They have pointed leaves.
Examples:
● Deodar
● Pine
● Chir
● Kail,etc
Deciduous:
● These have hard wood.
● These have broad leaves.
Examples:
● Teak
● Sal
● Shisham, etc.
COMPARISON OF SOFTWOOD AND HARDWOOD
No. Item SoftWoods HardWoods
1 Annual Rings Distinct Indistinct
2 Color Light Dark
3 Density Low High
4 Fire Resistance Poor More
5 Medullary Rays Indistinct Distinct
6 Source Coniferous trees with Deciduous trees with flat-board
needle-shaped leaves. leaves.
7 Strength Strong for direct pull and weak Equally strong for resisting
for resisting thrust or shear. tension, compression and shear.
8 Structure Resinous and split easily Non-resinous and close-grained
9 Weight Light Heavy
CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER
● Colour: The colour of wood can be uniform, mottled, or streaked. A lighter colour often indicates
weaker timber.
● Odour: Freshly cut timber typically emits a pleasant smell.
● Hardness: Hardness is an essential property of timber, contributing to its resistance against
damage.
● Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of timber depends on the presence of pores within the
wood.
● Moisture Content: Timber is hygroscopic and absorbs moisture from the environment. A high
moisture content indicates lower timber quality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER
● Swelling: High-quality timber swells less. Timber with thicker walls tends to swell more than
those with thinner walls.
● Shock Resistance: Timber should be able to withstand shocks and jerks. Anti-bending and
anti-splitting characteristics are important.
● Strength: The best quality timber possesses high strength, which varies depending on the grain
structure.
● Compressive Strength: Timber can be tested under a compressive load ranging from 500 kg/cm²
to 700 kg/cm².
● Tensile Strength: Good timber can resist tensile forces, although it is weaker when the force is
applied perpendicularly, with tensile strength ranging from 500 kg/cm² to 2000 kg/cm².
● Transverse Strength: A good quality timber exhibits significant bending strength.
Advantages of timber construction
● Timber is easy to handle and can be planed, sawn, and joined using standard carpentry
tools. It can be used for both load-bearing and non-load-bearing members, and connections in
timber construction are straightforward to provide. Timber is commonly used in furniture making
due to its decent appearance and comfort.
● Combining lightweight properties with strength, timber is preferred for buildings in
earthquake-prone areas. It is cost-effective and affordable. With proper protection from moisture,
rain, and wind, timber construction can be quite durable. Additionally, timber is highly
energy-efficient.
● Modifications, additions, and repairs in timber structures can be easily carried out. Timber
houses provide natural insulation, staying cool in summer and warm in winter because wood is a
poor conductor of heat. Timber is readily available and can be quickly transported using simple
means of communication.
Disadvantages of timber construction
● Susceptibility to Moisture: Timber is prone to damage from moisture, which can lead to decay,
rot, and reduced structural integrity if not properly treated and maintained.
● Vulnerability to Pests: Timber is susceptible to attacks from pests such as termites, beetles, and
fungi, which can compromise its strength and durability.
● Flammability: Timber is highly flammable and poses a significant fire risk, especially if not
treated with fire-resistant coatings.
● Limited Span Capability: Timber has limited strength in spanning large distances, making it less
suitable for long-span structures without additional support.
● Dimensional Instability: Timber can shrink, swell, or warp due to changes in moisture content,
leading to structural deformations over time.
● Maintenance Requirements: Timber structures require regular maintenance, including sealing,
painting, or treating, to protect against weathering and pests.
● Lower Strength Compared to Other Materials: Timber generally has lower compressive and
tensile strength compared to materials like steel or concrete, limiting its use in heavy load-bearing
applications.
● Susceptibility to Cracking and Splitting: Timber can crack or split under stress, especially when
exposed to fluctuating environmental conditions.
● Environmental Impact: Unsustainable sourcing of timber can lead to deforestation and
environmental degradation if not managed responsibly.
● Noise Transmission: Timber structures can have poor acoustic performance, transmitting noise
and vibrations more readily compared to other materials.
● Potential for Fungal Growth: Timber exposed to damp conditions can develop mold and
mildew, which can cause health issues and further degrade the material.
Processing of timber
The four stages involved in the processing of timber are:
● Felling of Trees
● Seasoning of Timber
● Conversion of Timber
● Preservation of Timber
Felling of Trees: This stage involves cutting down trees to obtain timber. The process of cutting trees
down to the ground is known as felling. The ideal age for felling trees typically ranges from 50 to 100
years.
Seasoning: Seasoning refers to the process of removing excess moisture from timber. Timber cannot be
used for construction or carpentry immediately after felling, as freshly cut wood contains about 50% or
more of its dry weight as water. If timber retains excess moisture, it can shrink excessively and be prone
to decay.
The seasoning of timber is carried out to achieve the following objectives:
● To enable timber to burn more efficiently when used as fuel.
● To reduce the weight of timber, thus lowering transportation and handling costs.
● To enhance the hardness, stiffness, strength, and electrical resistance of the timber.
● To prepare timber for treatments like paints, preservatives, and varnishes.
● To protect timber from fungal and insect attacks.
● To minimize the risk of cracking, shrinking, and warping in timber.
Methods of seasoning
Natural Seasoning: In this method, timber is seasoned
using natural air, often referred to as air seasoning. Timber
pieces are stacked either horizontally or vertically with
sufficient gaps between them to allow air circulation. The
stack is covered with a roof, and the timber is left to dry
naturally. This process is known as dry natural seasoning
and typically takes two to four years to complete.
Artificial seasoning
The various methods of artificial seasoning include:
● Boiling
● Kiln seasoning
● Chemical seasoning
● Water seasoning
● Electrical seasoning
A brief discussion of some of these methods follows:
Boiling: In this method, the timber is immersed in water, and the water is brought to a boil. The
boiling process is maintained for about 3 to 4 hours. After boiling, the timber is slowly dried under a
shed. This method is quick and reduces both the seasoning period and shrinkage of the timber.
Alternatively, hot steam can be used instead of boiling water to achieve similar results.
Kiln Seasoning: Kiln seasoning is a controlled method where timber is placed inside a kiln—a
chamber or compartment—where the temperature, humidity, and airflow are regulated. By carefully
controlling these conditions, moisture is gradually removed from the timber. This method is faster and
more efficient than natural seasoning and allows for consistent drying, which helps to reduce defects
like warping, splitting, and cracking.
Chemical Seasoning: In chemical seasoning, timber is treated with certain chemical solutions, such
as urea or sodium chloride, that help to accelerate the removal of moisture from the wood. The
chemicals reduce the hygroscopicity of timber, which decreases the drying time. The treated timber is
then dried in a kiln or under natural conditions. This method ensures uniform seasoning and
minimizes the risks of defects.
Timber is hygroscopic, meaning it absorbs and releases moisture based on the humidity and
temperature of its environment.
Water Seasoning: Water seasoning involves immersing timber in running water, such as a stream or
river, for a specific period, typically from a few days to several weeks. The running water washes
away the sap from the timber, which is then followed by air drying. This method helps to remove the
sap content and prevent insect attacks, but it can lead to loss of certain wood properties and is
generally less efficient than other methods.
Electrical Seasoning: Electrical seasoning, also known as dielectric seasoning, uses high-frequency
alternating current to generate heat within the timber. The heat causes the moisture in the wood to
evaporate rapidly. This method is very fast and effective, but it requires specialized equipment and is
typically used for high-value timber products due to the high cost involved.
Comparison between natural and artificial seasoning
Conversion of timber
The process of cutting and sawing timber into appropriate
sections is known as conversion. The different methods of
conversion include:
● Ordinary sawing
● Tangential sawing
● Quarter sawing
● Radial sawing
Ordinary sawing:
In this method, the log is sawn into parallel cuts along the
direction of the grain. This is a simple and quick method of
sawing and is widely used in our country. It is also the most
economical method, as it results in minimal wastage of usable
timber.
Tangential Sawing:
In tangential sawing, the cuts are made tangential to the annual rings of the log. After each cut, the log
is rotated 90 degrees. This method is used when the annual rings are prominent, but the medullary rays
are not clearly visible.
Quarter Sawing:
In quarter sawing, the cuts are made at right angles to each other. This method can produce finely
figured wood, especially in timber that lacks distinct medullary rays. However, the timber tends to
bend in a transverse direction.
Radial Sawing:
Radial sawing involves making cuts radially, parallel to the medullary rays. This method is typically
used for converting hard timber and results in wood with a decorative appearance.
Reasons for Preserving Timber:
● To extend the lifespan of timber structures.
● To enhance the durability of timber constructions.
● To safeguard timber structures from damage caused by destructive agents like fungi, insects, and
other pests.
Characteristics of a Good Preservative:
● It should be affordable and readily available.
● It must be long-lasting and resistant to heat, light, and other environmental factors.
● It should be non-flammable.
● It should be odorless or free from any unpleasant smell.
● It must provide strong resistance against moisture and dampness.
● It should have high penetration power into wood fibers, ideally reaching a depth of 6 mm to
25mm to be effective.
Types of Preservatives:
ASCU Treatment:
Developed by the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, this treatment consists of a mixture of:
● Parts by weight of hydrated arsenic pentoxide (AS₂O₅·2H₂O)
● Parts by weight of blue vitriol (copper sulphate)
● Parts by weight of potassium dichromate or sodium dichromate
This solution is applied to the surface of timber to protect it from white ant attacks.
Chemical Salts:
These preservatives are typically salts dissolved in water. Common examples include copper sulphate,
mercury chloride, sodium fluoride, and zinc chloride. They are odorless and non-flammable. Timber
treated with these preservatives experiences an immediate weight increase of about 2400 to 4800 N per
m³. After drying, the net weight increase reduces to approximately 50 to 300 N per m³.
Types of Preservatives:
Coal Tar:
Hot coal tar is applied to the surface of timber using a brush. When heated, coal tar becomes easy to
work with, and this process is referred to as tarring. Although it has an unpleasant odor and appearance,
it is an inexpensive option and provides fire resistance.
Oil Paints:
The timber surface is coated with 2-3 layers of oil paint, provided the wood is properly seasoned. Oil
paints help protect the timber from moisture, thereby enhancing its durability.
Solignum Paints:
These paints are highly toxic and effectively protect timber from white ants. Solignum paints can also
be tinted to achieve the desired color or finish.
Methods of Timber Preservation:
Brushing:
This is the most straightforward method. A solution made from a preservative is applied to the surface
of seasoned timber using high-quality brushes. Before applying the preservative, any cracks in the
wood should be filled.
Charring:
The timber surface to be charred is kept wet for about 30 minutes, then burned over a wood fire to a
depth of approximately 15 mm. The charred area is then cooled with water. This process creates a layer
of charcoal on the surface, which serves as a protective barrier.
Dipping and Steeping:
In this method, timber is dipped or soaked in a preservative solution for a short period. Alternatively,
the timber may be steeped or wetted with the preservative for varying durations, ranging from a few
hours to several days or weeks.
Methods of Timber Preservation:
Hot and Cold Open Tank Treatment:
This technique involves submerging the timber in a tank filled with a preservative solution, which is
then heated to a temperature of 85°C to 95°C for a few hours. After heating, the timber is allowed to
cool slowly while still submerged in the tank.
Injecting Under Pressure:
In this method, a preservative is injected into the timber under high pressure, which allows it to
penetrate deeply. This technique is commonly used in creosoting and is considered the most effective
way to treat timber with preservatives. However, it requires a specialized treatment facility.
Spraying:
This method involves filling a spraying gun with a preservative solution and applying it to the timber
surface under pressure. Spraying is more effective than brushing and provides better coverage.
Qualities of good timber:
● Appearance: Freshly cut timber should have a hard and glossy surface.
● Colour: Timber with a darker color is generally preferred, as lighter colors often indicate lower
strength.
● Durability: High-quality timber should be durable, with the ability to resist fungi, insects,
chemicals, physical forces, and mechanical actions.
● Elasticity: Good timber should be elastic, meaning it returns to its original shape after the
removal of a load causing deformation.
● Fibres: The fibers in the timber should be straight.
● Fire Resistance: Timber should have low thermal conductivity. Dense wood typically offers
better fire resistance.
● Smell: Good timber has a pleasant, sweet smell. An unpleasant odor may indicate decay.
● Strength and Toughness: High-quality timber should be strong and tough, capable of bearing
both gradual and sudden loads, and resistant to shocks and vibrations.
Defects in Timber
Timber can exhibit five types of defects:
● Defects due to conversion
● Defects due to fungi
● Defects due to insects
● Defects due to natural forces
● Defects due to seasoning
Defects due to Conversion: These defects occur during the process of
converting timber into commercial forms. One common defect is:
● Chip Mark: This defect is characterized by marks or
impressions left by chips on the finished surface of the timber. It
can also result from parts of a planing machine.
b) Diagonal Grain: This defect occurs due to
improper sawing of the timber, resulting in
diagonal marks on the surface.
c) Torn Grain: This defect happens when a
small depression is formed on the finished
surface of the timber due to a tool falling or
mishandling.
d) Wane: This defect is indicated by the
presence of the original rounded surface on
the processed piece of timber.
Defects Due to Fungi: Fungi are microscopic plant organisms that can cause damage to timber. They
attack timber only when the following two conditions are met simultaneously:
● The moisture content of the timber is above 20%.
● There is sufficient air and warmth for fungi to grow.
If either of these conditions is not met, wood decay due to fungi will not occur. For instance, wood
that is completely submerged in water is protected from fungal decay.
Timber submerged in water is not susceptible to fungal attacks due to the lack of air. The following
are defects caused by fungi:
a) Blue Stain: Certain fungi cause the sapwood to develop a bluish discoloration.
b) Brown Rot: "Rot" refers to the decay of timber. Specific fungi consume cellulose in the wood,
giving it a brownish color. This type of decay is known as brown rot.
c) Dry Rot: Certain fungi feed on timber and, in the process, degrade it into a dry, powdery form.
This deterioration is referred to as dry rot.
d) Heart Rot: This defect occurs when a branch detaches from a tree, exposing the heartwood to
atmospheric conditions. Over time, the tree weakens and produces a hollow sound when struck with
a hammer.
e) White Rot: Unlike brown rot, white rot occurs when certain fungi break down lignin in the wood,
resulting in a white, fibrous mass primarily composed of cellulose.
Defects caused by insects: The following insects are primarily responsible for timber decay:
a) Beetles: These small insects cause timber to deteriorate rapidly, reducing it to a fine, flour-like
powder. However, they generally leave the outer shell undisturbed, making the timber appear sound
externally. As a result, timber infested by beetles may seem structurally intact until it eventually fails.
b) Marine Borers: These insects are typically found in saltwater environments. While most do not
feed on wood, they create holes or tunnels in it to take shelter. These holes can reach up to 25mm in
diameter and 60mm in length. Wood attacked by marine borers often loses its color and strength.
c) Termites: Commonly referred to as white ants, termites are abundant in tropical and subtropical
regions. They live in colonies and are extremely fast at consuming the core of the timber, quickly
weakening the material from the inside.
Defects caused by natural forces: Abnormal growth and tissue rupture are the primary natural
forces responsible for defects in timber. Some common defects resulting from these forces include:
● Burls
● Callus
● Chemical stain
● Coarse grain
● Dead wood
● Druxiness
● Water stain
● Wind cracks
Defects due to seasoning:
a. Bow: This defect is characterized by a curvature that
forms along the length of the timber.
b. Check: A check refers to a crack that separates the wood
fibers but does not extend from one end of the timber to the
other.
c. Collapse: This occurs when uneven shrinkage causes the
wood to flatten during the drying process, resulting in a
collapse.
d. Cup: This defect is identified by a curvature that
develops in the transverse (crosswise) direction of the
timber
e. Radial Shakes: These are cracks that radiate outward
from the center of the timber. They typically occur when the
tree is exposed to sunlight for seasoning after being felled.
f. Split: A split occurs when a check extends across the
entire length of the timber, from one end to the other.
Industrial Timber
Assignment- (Given)
Submission Date-27th September,2024
India produces over 150 species of timber, with several key varieties widely
used for engineering purposes. Here are some of the prominent timber trees
found in India:
Arjun
Color: Dark brown
Characteristics: Heavy, strong, and suitable for use underwater
Found in: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
Uses: Beams, posts, carts, cart wheels, well kerbs, etc.
Babul
Color: Whitish red
Characteristics: Hard, strong, durable, and tough
Found in: Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
Uses: House and boat construction, agricultural tools, etc.
Bamboo
Characteristics: An endogenous tree known for its flexibility and strength
Found in: Assam and Bengal (in abundance)
Uses: Rafters, temporary bridges, fancy goods, etc.
Banyan
Color: Brown
Characteristics: Strong and durable, particularly when used underwater
Found: Throughout India
Uses: Door panels, well kerbs, etc.
Deodar
Color: Yellowish brown
Characteristics: Provides softwood; strongly scented, oily, and highly
durable
Found in: The Himalayas, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh
Uses: Inexpensive and rough furniture, railway sleepers, etc.
Rosewood
Color: Dark
Characteristics: Strong, tough, close-grained, and retains its shape
well.
Found in: Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
Uses: High-quality furniture
Oak
Color: Yellowish brown
Characteristics: Strong, durable, with straight, silvery grains
Uses: Sports equipment
Other notable timber trees in India include mango, guava, sal, teak,
sundri, mahogany, and pine.
Thank You
"Freedom is from within."
-Frank Lloyd Wright