GNS 218: RESEARCH METHOD

Lecture Notes

1. Meaning of Research

Introduction

Research is one of the most important tools in the pursuit of knowledge. It provides a systematic
and reliable way of finding answers to questions, solving problems, and generating evidence to
guide decision-making. In health and other fields, research contributes greatly to understanding
issues, identifying solutions, and improving practices that affect individuals and communities.

Definition of Research

Research can be defined as a systematic, organized, and objective process of investigating,

discovering, and interpreting new knowledge, facts, or principles. It is a deliberate attempt to
seek answers to specific questions, solve identified problems, or validate existing knowledge.
Unlike ordinary ways of finding information, research is carried out in a structured and scientific
manner to ensure that the results are dependable and free from personal bias.

Key Characteristics of Research

1. Systematic:
Research follows a well-planned and organized procedure. It does not happen
haphazardly but rather goes through clearly defined steps such as problem identification,
data collection, analysis, and conclusion.
2. Objective:
Research findings must be free from personal bias or emotions. The researcher focuses on
facts, evidence, and logical reasoning to arrive at valid conclusions.
3. Knowledge-Oriented:
The main aim of research is to add to existing knowledge or provide new insights. This
knowledge can either be theoretical (expanding understanding) or practical (providing
solutions).
4. Types of Research:
o Basic Research (Theoretical): Conducted mainly to expand knowledge without
immediate practical application.
o Applied Research (Practical): Aimed at solving real-life problems and
improving practices in society.

Examples of Research in Health

 Studying the causes of malaria in a community: This helps to identify factors

contributing to the spread of malaria and informs preventive measures.
 Investigating the effect of exclusive breastfeeding on child survival: This provides
evidence on the health benefits of breastfeeding and guides health policies to promote
child well-being.
Conclusion

In summary, research is a scientific and structured approach to discovering new knowledge,

validating existing ideas, and solving problems. It is both systematic and objective, making it
different from ordinary ways of gathering information. In the field of health, research plays a
vital role in improving healthcare delivery, preventing diseases, and enhancing the quality of life.

2. Features of Research Method

Introduction

Every research study follows certain guiding principles and characteristics that make it scientific
and reliable. These features distinguish research from ordinary information gathering.
Understanding the features of research is important for both researchers and students, as it
provides a foundation for conducting valid and credible studies.

Key Features of Research Method

1. Systematic Approach
Research is conducted in an orderly and logical sequence. It follows clearly defined steps
such as problem identification, literature review, data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. This systematic process ensures that results are accurate and reliable.
2. Problem-Oriented
Research is carried out to address a specific problem or question. It does not occur
randomly but begins with identifying an issue that requires investigation. For example, in
health sciences, research may focus on identifying the causes of high maternal mortality
in a community.
3. Objective and Empirical
Research is objective, meaning it is free from personal opinions and biases. It is also
empirical, meaning that it relies on observable and measurable evidence. Data collected
must be based on facts rather than assumptions.
4. Replicable
One important feature of research is that its results can be tested and verified by other
researchers. If the same method is followed under similar conditions, the study should
produce similar results, ensuring reliability.
5. Logical Reasoning
The conclusions of research are based on sound reasoning and factual evidence, not on
guesswork or assumptions. Researchers use logical methods such as induction (from
specific observations to general conclusions) and deduction (from general principles to
specific cases).
6. Generalizability
Findings from a research study can be extended beyond the sample studied to a wider
population. For example, a study on malaria prevention in one community can inform
practices in other similar communities.
7. Ethical Considerations
Research must follow ethical principles such as honesty, respect for participants,
 informed consent, and confidentiality. In health-related studies, ensuring participants’
safety and protecting their rights is of utmost importance.

Conclusion

In summary, the features of research method highlight what makes research scientific, valid, and
trustworthy. A systematic approach, objectivity, replicability, logical reasoning, and ethical
conduct are essential elements that guide researchers in producing meaningful knowledge. These
features ensure that the outcomes of research can be trusted, applied, and built upon by others in
the academic and professional world.

3. Approaches of Research

Introduction

In conducting research, different approaches can be used depending on the nature of the problem,
the type of data required, and the objective of the study. The three main approaches are
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods. Each approach has its strengths and is chosen
based on the kind of knowledge the researcher wants to generate.

1. Qualitative Approach

The qualitative approach focuses on understanding human experiences, behaviors, attitudes, and
social contexts in depth. It is concerned with the why and how of phenomena rather than
numerical measurement. Data collected in qualitative research are usually descriptive, such as
words, opinions, or observations.

 Key Features:
o Explores meanings, perceptions, and experiences.
o Uses methods such as interviews, focus group discussions, and direct
observations.
o Results are rich in detail but may not be easily generalized.
 Example in Health:
Exploring attitudes and beliefs toward cervical cancer screening among women in a
community. This helps health professionals understand barriers and motivators for
screening.

2. Quantitative Approach

The quantitative approach is focused on numerical data, measurement, and statistical analysis. It
seeks to quantify problems, relationships, or variables and often involves large samples for
generalization.

 Key Features:
o Uses structured tools such as questionnaires, surveys, and experiments.
o Data are analyzed statistically to test hypotheses and make predictions.
o Results are more generalizable compared to qualitative research.
  Example in Health:
Measuring the prevalence of hypertension in a community by conducting blood pressure
screenings and analyzing the data statistically.

3. Mixed-Methods Approach

The mixed-methods approach combines both qualitative and quantitative methods within the
same study. This allows the researcher to benefit from the strengths of both approaches while
minimizing their weaknesses.

 Key Features:
o Collects both descriptive (qualitative) and numerical (quantitative) data.
o Provides a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem.
o Can be conducted sequentially (one after the other) or concurrently (at the same
time).
 Example in Health:
Studying maternal health practices by using surveys to collect numerical data
(quantitative) and focus group discussions to explore personal experiences (qualitative).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the choice of research approach depends on the research question, the type of data
required, and the purpose of the study. Qualitative research provides in-depth understanding,
quantitative research offers measurable and generalizable results, while mixed-methods research
integrates both to give a well-rounded perspective.

4. Design and Planning of Research

Introduction

The design and planning of research is a critical stage in the research process. A well-structured
plan serves as a roadmap that guides the researcher from the beginning to the end of the study.
Without a clear design, the research may lack focus, direction, and reliability. Research design
involves making decisions about what to study, how to study it, who or what to study, and how
the results will be analyzed and interpreted.

Steps in Research Design and Planning

1. Identify the Problem

o This is the starting point of every research. The researcher must clearly define the
issue, gap, or question that requires investigation.
o Example: High maternal mortality rates in a particular community.
2. Review of Literature
o Reviewing past studies helps to understand what is already known and what gaps
remain. It also prevents duplication and builds on existing knowledge.
o Example: Examining previous studies on factors contributing to maternal
mortality.
 3. Set Objectives and Research Questions
o The researcher defines what they want to achieve and frames clear research
questions.
o Objectives should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-
bound (SMART).
4. Formulate Hypotheses (Mainly in Quantitative Studies)
o A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the expected outcome.
o Example: "There is a significant relationship between exclusive breastfeeding and
child survival."
5. Choose Research Design
o The research design provides the framework for data collection and analysis.
Common designs include:
 Descriptive: Provides details about a situation or population.
 Experimental: Examines cause-and-effect relationships.
 Cross-sectional: Collects data at one point in time.
 Case-control: Compares people with a condition (cases) to those without
(controls).
 Cohort: Follows a group over time to study outcomes.
6. Select Sample and Sampling Technique
o The sample is a subset of the population studied. Sampling techniques can be
probability (e.g., random, stratified) or non-probability (e.g., convenience,
purposive).
7. Plan Data Collection Tools
o The choice of tool depends on the type of data required.
 Quantitative tools: Questionnaires, tests, structured observations.
 Qualitative tools: Interviews, focus group discussions, participant
observation.
8. Determine Method of Analysis
o Data analysis depends on the type of data collected.
 Quantitative data: Analyzed using statistical techniques.
 Qualitative data: Analyzed thematically to identify patterns and
meanings.
9. Plan Logistics and Budget
o The researcher must plan for resources such as time, personnel, equipment, and
financial costs. This ensures the feasibility of the study.

Conclusion

In conclusion, designing and planning a research study is like laying the foundation for a
building. Each step, from identifying the problem to planning the budget, must be carefully
considered. A well-designed study ensures clarity, validity, and reliability of findings, making
the research process more effective and efficient.

5. Sampling Techniques

Introduction
In research, it is often difficult or impossible to study the entire population due to constraints of
time, cost, and accessibility. To overcome this, researchers select a portion of the population,
known as a sample, which represents the whole. The process of selecting this portion is called
sampling. The goal of sampling is to ensure that the selected group accurately reflects the
characteristics of the larger population, so that findings can be generalized.

Definition of Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals, items, or cases from a larger
population in order to study and draw conclusions about the entire population.

Types of Sampling Techniques

A. Probability Sampling

In probability sampling, every member of the population has an equal or known chance of being
selected. This method minimizes bias and allows results to be generalized to the entire
population.

1. Simple Random Sampling

o Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
o Example: Using a lottery method to select 50 students from a class of 200.
2. Systematic Sampling
o Selecting every kth individual from a list after a random start.
o Example: Choosing every 10th patient entering a clinic.
3. Stratified Sampling
o The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on characteristics such as
age, gender, or occupation, and samples are taken from each group.
o Example: Dividing a population into male and female groups, then randomly
selecting participants from each.
4. Cluster Sampling
o The population is divided into clusters (usually based on geography or natural
grouping), and entire clusters are randomly selected.
o Example: Selecting entire villages in a region to study malaria prevalence.

B. Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, not every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Selection is often based on convenience or judgment, which may introduce bias but is
useful when probability sampling is not feasible.

1. Convenience Sampling
o Participants are chosen based on availability and willingness to take part.
o Example: Distributing questionnaires to students present in class at the time of the
survey.
2. Purposive Sampling
 oParticipants are selected deliberately because they have specific characteristics
relevant to the study.
o Example: Interviewing only diabetic patients when studying diabetes
management.
3. Snowball Sampling
o Existing participants help recruit others, often used for hard-to-reach populations.
o Example: Studying drug users by asking each participant to refer others.
4. Quota Sampling
o The researcher ensures that the sample reflects certain characteristics of the
population, but selection within groups is non-random.
o Example: Ensuring equal numbers of male and female respondents but selecting
them based on convenience.

Conclusion

Sampling is an essential part of research as it enables the study of a population without

examining every member. Probability sampling techniques are more rigorous and allow
generalization of results, while non-probability sampling is easier and more practical in some
situations but may introduce bias. The choice of sampling technique depends on the research
objectives, resources, and the nature of the population under study.

6. Use of Statistics in Research

Introduction

Statistics plays a central role in research as it provides the tools and techniques needed to
organize, analyze, and interpret data. Without statistics, research findings would lack precision,
reliability, and meaning. Through statistical methods, researchers are able to summarize complex
data, test hypotheses, draw valid conclusions, and make predictions. In health and social
sciences, statistics is particularly important for understanding trends, identifying risk factors, and
evaluating interventions.

Role of Statistics in Research

1. Summarizing and Describing Data (Descriptive Statistics)

o Descriptive statistics help to organize and present raw data in a clear and
meaningful way.
o Tools such as mean, median, mode, percentages, graphs, and charts are
commonly used.
o Example: Calculating the average birth weight of babies in a hospital.
2. Testing Hypotheses and Making Inferences (Inferential Statistics)
o Inferential statistics allow researchers to make conclusions about a population
based on data collected from a sample.
o Methods include t-tests, chi-square tests, regression analysis, and ANOVA.
o Example: Using the chi-square test to assess the relationship between smoking
and lung cancer.
3. Identifying Relationships Between Variables
 oStatistics helps to determine whether and how variables are related.
oCorrelation and regression analysis are used to study the strength and direction of
relationships.
o Example: Examining the relationship between nutrition and child growth.
4. Ensuring Accuracy, Objectivity, and Reliability of Results
o Statistical methods reduce bias and error, ensuring that results are valid and
trustworthy.
o They also allow for replication and verification of findings by other researchers.

Examples of Statistics in Health Research

 Descriptive Example: Calculating the mean, median, and range of blood pressure levels
in patients.
 Inferential Example: Using logistic regression to analyze the factors associated with
maternal mortality.
 Relationship Example: Studying the correlation between physical activity and body
mass index (BMI).

Conclusion

In summary, statistics is an indispensable tool in research. It helps to summarize data, test

hypotheses, establish relationships, and ensure objectivity in findings. Without statistics, research
would remain descriptive and less reliable. In health research especially, the use of statistics
enables evidence-based decision-making and the development of effective policies and
interventions.

7. Conduct and Presentation of Research Results

A. Conducting Research

 Systematic Data Collection: Data should be collected in an organized manner using

appropriate research instruments such as questionnaires, interviews, experiments, or
observations.
 Accuracy and Consistency: Ensure that data are recorded correctly and consistently to
avoid errors or bias.
 Ethical Considerations: Respect participants’ confidentiality, obtain informed consent,
and ensure no harm is caused to respondents.
 Data Analysis: Apply suitable statistical or qualitative techniques to make sense of the
data and answer the research questions.

B. Presentation of Research Results

 Use of Visual Aids: Tables, charts, and graphs should be used to make findings clearer
and easier to interpret.
 Alignment with Objectives: Results should be reported in line with the research
objectives, questions, or hypotheses.
  Clarity of Language: Use simple, precise, and non-technical terms where possible to
ensure results are understandable.
 Highlighting Key Findings: Emphasize major trends, significant relationships, and
important differences observed in the study.
 Logical Organization: Results should flow in a logical sequence, moving from general
findings to specific details.

Example in Health Research:

 A study on malaria prevalence among children may present results in a frequency table
(number of cases by age group), a bar chart (distribution by gender), and a pie chart
(percentage by locality), followed by interpretation of trends.

8. Layout of a Research Report

A well-written research report follows a standard structure to ensure clarity, coherence, and ease
of understanding. The common layout includes:

1. Title Page
o Contains the title of the research, name of the author/researcher, institution,
department, and date of submission.
o The title should be clear, specific, and concise.
2. Abstract
o A brief summary of the entire research (usually 150–250 words).
o Includes purpose of the study, methods used, key findings, and conclusion.
3. Introduction
o Provides background information on the study.
o States the research problem, objectives, research questions, and hypotheses.
o Explains the significance and scope of the study.
4. Literature Review
o Summarizes previous studies related to the topic.
o Identifies knowledge gaps the study intends to fill.
o Helps to justify the current research.
5. Methodology
o Explains how the research was carried out.
o Includes:
 Research design (survey, experiment, case study, etc.)
 Population and sample (target group, sampling technique, sample size)
 Instruments (questionnaires, interviews, tests, etc.)
 Data collection procedure
 Methods of data analysis
6. Results
o Presents the findings of the study clearly and objectively.
o Uses tables, charts, graphs, and figures to summarize data.
o Avoids interpretation (saved for discussion).
7. Discussion
o Interprets the findings in relation to the research objectives and questions.
 o Compares results with previous studies reviewed in the literature.
o Explains possible reasons for observed trends or differences.
8. Conclusion and Recommendations
o Summarizes key findings of the study.
o Draws conclusions based on results.
o Suggests practical recommendations or solutions to the problem studied.
9. References
o Lists all sources cited in the report using a recognized referencing style (APA,
MLA, Harvard, etc.).
10. Appendices
o Includes additional materials not in the main body, e.g., questionnaire, raw data,
consent forms, detailed tables.

Summary for Students

 Research is a systematic process aimed at solving problems or generating new

knowledge.
 It is characterized by objectivity, replicability, and systematic steps.
 Approaches to research include:
o Qualitative – descriptive, experience-based.
o Quantitative – numerical, statistical.
o Mixed methods – combines both.
 Design and planning involve identifying the problem, reviewing literature, setting
objectives, formulating hypotheses, choosing a design, sampling, selecting tools, and
planning analysis.
 Sampling ensures that a part of the population represents the whole, using probability or
non-probability methods.
 Statistics are vital for describing, analyzing, and interpreting data accurately.
 Conducting research requires careful data collection, analysis, and ethical
considerations.
 Presentation of results should be clear, using tables, charts, and simple language.
 Research reports follow a standard format: Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Literature
Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion & Recommendations,
References, and Appendices.