Chapter ::ii

Motivation
Chapter Highlights
Introduction. Objectives and Characteristics of Motivation. Motivators: Motivation and
Motivating. Satisfaction, The Motivation Process: Sources of Motivation/Employee
Wants: Maslow's Need-hierarchy Theory of Motivation: Criticism/Limitations of
Maslow's Need-hierarchy Theory: Ucrzbergs Two Factor Theory of Motivation: Criticism
of l-Ierzberg's Two Factor Theory; Similarities and Dissimilarities between Maslow's and
l-lerzberg's Models of Motivation; McClellaiids Need Theory of Motivation; McGre'ors
Views on Motivation: Alderfer's ERG (Existence. Relatedness and Growth) Theory; Equity
Theory of Motivation: Expectancy Theory of Motivation, Reinforcement Theory ol
Motivation: Special Motivational Techniques. Case Study. Questions to Answer. Indicate
True or False. Multiple Choice Questions. Exercise, References.

11.1. Introduction
Man is a complex animal. He is far more complex than he seems to
be. Thus, when one wants to define motivation, lie enters a field which is
somewhat difficult because the prccise conceptual definition of the term is
rarely found. Consequently the expressed and implied meanings
commonly differ.
Mot i vauon Motivating is often referred to as the dynatnic' of behaviour. The
indicates the motive
that activates the term 'dynamic' means energies or forces which produce motion in
I- gail sa io it
physical bodies. In psychology and administration, it means the mental
enraging force or motive that activates the organism.
Motivation may be defined as the act of stimulating someone to take a
desired course of action. It is the art of inducing employees to work
Motivatin
g
Alotivating 'nov be-
diligently and sincerely for the success of the enterprise. It is the
cis/ie/ [Link] d of
siwi,Iaiin' intensification of desire of the workers/employees to work more cordially,
SOflirOfl4 to take a
(/[Link] of carefully and consciously. In the words of L. A. Allen, 'Motivating is the
action-
work of manager who performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to
take required action."
In a nutshell we can say that motivating is a means of inspiring people
to intensify their desire and willingness to discharge their duties efficiently
and to co-operate for the achievement of common objectives.

11.2 Objectives and Characteristics of Motivation

The objective of motivation is to create conditions in which people are
willing to work with zeal, initiative, interest and enthusiasm. It also creates
conditions in which people work with a sense of responsibility, loyalty,
discipline and with pride and confidence so that the goals of an
organisatioti are achieved effectively.
 Motivation 153

Motivation is a captivating concept. It is a fascinating but a complex

phenomenon. The main features of motivation are as follows
• Motivation is goal-oriented;
• Motivation is a Continuous process;
• Motivation may be positive or negative:
• Motivation may be monetary or non-monetary;
• Motivation may be considered in totality, not in piece-meal;
• Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which converts abilities
into performance.

11.3 Motivators
Motivators are things that induce an individual to perform. While
Motivators are the
motivation reflects wants, motivators are the rewards or incentives that rewards or
sharpen the drive to satisfy wants. incentives that
sharpen the drive to
A manager can do much to sharpen motives by establishing an satisfy wants.
environment favourable to certain drives. For example, employees in a
business that has developed a reputation for excellence tend to be
motivated to contribute to this reputation.
A motivator, then, is something that influences an individual's A !PlOtil'alOr, i.
behaviour. It makes a difference in what a person will do. Obviously, in something that
influences an
any enterprise, the manager must be concerned about motivators and also individual's
behaviour.
inventive in their use. Also he has to use such motivators as will lead the
employees to perform effectively for their employees.

11.4 Motivation and Motivating

Motivating is the management process of influencing people's Motivation refers to
a state of mind to
behaviour based on the knowledge of what cause and channel sustain work wilhnglv,
human behaviour in a particular committed direction. whereas motivating
Simply, the term motivation indicates a noun whereas motivating a is the process of
influencing
verb. Motivation refers to a state of mind to work willingly, whereas behaviour.
motivating is the process of influencing behaviour.

11.5 Satisfaction
Satisfaction is the end result of the need-want-action-satisfaction
chain, which can be represented in the following diagram.
Figure 11.1
N-ds j Give rise to Wants Whici Tensions
caus
au

Which Satisfaction
rise to Actions result in
r'

NEED-WANT-ACTION-SATISFACTION CHAIN

11 Ft 1-20
154 Human Resource Management

"Motivation" and "satisfaction' are related to each other, although

there is a fine difference between these two terms. Motivation refers to the
Motivation is the
drive or urge while drive and effort to satisfy a want or goal. But satisfaction refers to the
the fidfillme,it of contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. In other words,
this drive is
satisfaction. motivation implies a drive toward an outcome, and satisfaction is the
outcome already experienced.
From the management point of view, then, a person might have high
job satisfaction but a low level of motivation for the job, or the reverse
might be true.

11.6 The Motivation Process

The motivation proces progresses through a series of discrete steps.
Needs/motives are the starting point of motivation. An unsatisfied need
creates tension that stimulates drives within the individual. These drives
generate a search behaviour to achieve particular goals that will satisfy the
need and lead to reduction of tension. The action taken by the individual
will lead to reward/goal which satisfies the need and reduces tension.
The motivation process may be presented in the following diagram.

Figure 11.2
Needs/
[Motives
Tension Search
BEHAVIOUR
_ J
PerforrnanceL
I
Reward!
Goals

Need satisfaction 4
THE MOTIVATION PROCESS
Employee motivation is of crucial concern to management: mainly
because of the role that employee motivation plays in performance.
Usually performance is determined by (i) ability (ii) environment and (iii)
Performance is motivation. If any of these three factors is missing or deficient, effective
determine,! b y (i) performance is impossible. A manager may have the most highly
abilit y (ii) qualified employees under him and provide them with the best possible
environrnenz and
(iii) motn'auon. environment, but effective performance will not result unless the
subordinates are motivated to perform well. Therefore, management can
do its job effectively only through motivating employees to work for the
accomplishment of organisational objectives.

11.7 Sources of Motivation/Employee Wants

Principles of motivation are not very easy to establish because human
behavior is extremely complex. Individual differences are substantial, and
people are continuously changing. It is, therefore, very difficult to
understand people's behaviour. However, agreement is widespread on a
number of factors to which most of the people respond. Factors to which
peoples usually respond may be viewed as follows:
 Motivation 155

I . Pay or money : Pay or monetary compensation helps in satisfying The usual

physiological, security and egoistic needs. In most industrial societies ?nouvating facto-s
are : pa y, job
money is the incentive used frequently to stimulate workers for security, praise turd
greater production. recognition,
competition,
2. Security of job Because of current threat from technological change knowledge of
this need is extremely high for employees. Thus most employees results,
parlicipation, pride,
want to feel secure in their job. They want to feel that they will be delegation of
protected against loss of job and earnings. authorit y, cultural
variation, social
3 Praise and recognition : It is important that the employee be factor, opportunttv
for advancement,
recognised and praised for his job well done. worthwhile activity,
4, Conzpetitioiz : Competition may be used as an incentive in etc.
stimulating certain types of desirable behavior. An employee may
compete with other employees or a member of the group.
5. Knowledge of results A knowledge of result serves as an incentive to
better performance and it also facilitates learning the job.
6. Participation : Participation is recognised as one of the best
incentives for stimulating employee efficiency and for enhancing job
satisfaction.
7. Pride The appeal of pride overlaps some of the incentives
previously stated, such as competition and praise. If a person wins in
a competetion with others or receives praise, part of his satisfaction
can be attributed to pride.
8. Delegation of authorit y Delegation of substantial amount of
authority proves to be a strong motivating factor, It gives birth to
pride in the minds of employees.
9. Cultural variation Cultural variation makes differences in human
motives. There are significant differences in the culture of say
Bangladesh and Pakistan.
10 Social factor : Social satisfaction represents an important aspect of
totality of benefits. They may evolve from or ganisational elements.
11 Opportunity for advancement Most employees seek opportunities
for advancement in their job. So, the desire for personal development
is a good incentive for the employees.
12 Worthwhile activity Employees will work harder when they feel
they are doing some worthwhile activity. This incentive can be
created by establishing social responsibility of management.
13. Miscellaneous : ( a) Congenial associates; (b) comfortable, safe and
attractive working conditions; (c) competent and fair leadership; (d)
reasonable orders and directions; (e) socially relevant organisation
etc
16 Human Resource Management

11.8 Maslow's Need-hierarchy Theory of Motivation

This is the classical and basic theory of motivation. Here A.H. Maslow
has shown that an individual has a hierarchy of needs that shape his
reaction to any particular situation. Maslow advanced the following
important propositions about human behaviour.
1. Man is a wanting being : Man always wants and wants more. But
what he wants depends upon what he already has. As soon as one of
the man's needs is satiated, another appears in the place. This process
is unending and continuous from birth to death.
2. A satisfied need is not a motivator : A satisfied need is not a
motivator of human behaviour. Only the unsatisfied needs motivate
behaviour.
3. Needs can be arranged in a number of levels : When needs can be
arranged in a number of levels a hierarchy is formed. The
satisfaction of lower level needs demands the fulfillment of the next
level. That is, human needs move in an ascending order, from the
lowest to the highest levels.
The basic human needs identified by Maslow, in an ascending order
of importance, are the following
i. Physiological needs
ii. Security or safety needs
iii. Affiliation, acceptance or social needs
iv. Ego-esteem needs
V. Self-actualization needs.
The following diagram shows the need hierarchy model of motivation
given by Maslow

Figure 11.3

'Self actu.\ Desire to become what one is capable of becoming—to

alization need maximize ones potential and to accomplish something.

Ego-Need \ Need for power, prestige, status and self confidence

Social Need \ Need for love and affection, acceptance by fellows and the like
Safety/Security \ Need to be free from physical danger and the fear of loss
NI of job, property or shelter.
PhysiologicalNeed for
\ food, water, shelter, clothing, sexual
Need \ satisfaction, etc.

Maslow's Need-hierarchy Model

 Motivation 157

Let us see what is meant by each of these needs

i. Physiological Needs These are the basic needs for the maintenance
of human life. These are the basic needs of organism—food, water,
shelter, clothing, sexual satisfaction and the like. Maslow took the
position that until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to
maintain life other needs will not motivate people.
ii. Safety Needs : These are the needs to be free from physical danger
and the fear of loss of a job, property, food, or shelter.
iii. Social Needs : Since people are social beings, they need to belong
and to be accepted by others. Social needs are physical association
and contact, belongingness, love and affection, acceptance by fellows
and the like.
iv. Esteem Needs : If other needs are reasonably satisfied then ego needs
become motivator. People want to be held in esteem both by
themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such
satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self confidence.
vi. Self-Actualization Needs Maslow regards this as the highest need in
his hierarchy. It is the desire to become what one is capable of
becoming—to miximize one's potential and to accomplish
something.
It is apparent that it is impossible to motivate workers by satisfying all
of the above mentioned needs. This theory is not valid for the workers of
under-developed or developing countries. It may be somewhat true for
developed countries.
Criticism/Limitations of Maslow's Need-hierarchy Theory
Maslows concept of Need-hierarchy has been subjected to considerable
research. Researchers have raised questions about the accuracy of the
hierarchical aspects of these needs. Maslow's Need-hierarchy theory is
criticized for the following reasons
1. Maslows theory lacks clarity and consistency which are the
prerequisites for the formation of a theory.
2. Maslow has failed to show empirical evidence to support his theory.
3. Maslow did not clearly spell out the specific operations of his
hierarchy of need theory.
4. Need hierarchy theory does not mention the proportion of need that
must be satisfied to move to higher need.
5. Maslow provided conflicting images of self-actualized man.
6. Maslow has over-emphasied the subjective side of motivation but he
has failed to spell out clearly the objective side of motivation.
7. Needs do not always follow a hierarchy, especially after the lower
level needs are satisfied.
 158
Human Resource Management

8. The strength of needs varies in between individuals. In one

individual social needs may predominate while in another self-
actualisation needs may be the strongest.
9. The upward movement of needs result from upward career changes
and not from the satisfaction of lower order needs.
10. In almost all groups satisfaction of needs is definitely more or less
insufficient.
Thus, Maslows hierarchy of needs theory is not only outdated but
also limited in its usefulness to act as an all-encompassing theory of
human motivation.

11.9 Herzberg's Two Factor Theory of Motivation

Herzbergc theor y is Frederick Herzberg, a well known management theorist, developed a
based oil
factors- specific content theory of work motivation. In the 1950s, he conducted a
'notivationa/ and
h ygiene factors. study of
. need satisfaction of 200 engineers and accountants employed by
firms in and around Pitsburg. The purpose of his study was to find out
what people want, and what motivates them.
Herzberg's motivation theory is based on two types of factors. These
factors are satisfiers (motivational) and dissatisfiers
(maintenance or
hygiene). The dissatisfiers include the factors of company policy and
administration, salary, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal
relations, status, job security, and personal life. The (liSSatisfjers are not
motivators.

The satisfiers are motivators and therefore related to job content. They
include the factors like achievement, recognition, challenging work,
Hygiene factors are
not fllOtiU(1t0iS but advancement, responsibility and growth in the job. Their existence yields
their withdrawal feelings of satisfaction.
creates
dissatisfaction Job
content factors like The first group of factors are called maintenance factors. Their
achievement presence will not motivate people, yet they must be present. In fact they
recognition etc. are
the real niotivators. provide an almost neutral feeling among the people of an organisation,
but their withdrawal or absence creates dissatisfaction. The second group,
or the job content factors, are found to be the real motivators. Because
If a manager seeks to they have the potential of yielding a sense of satisfaction.
eliminate factors
that can create Job The factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from
dissatisfaction, he those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore if a manager seeks to
can bring about
peace but no eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction, he can bring about
necessarily
'flOtjPO(io peace but not necessarily motivation. If employees are to be motivated
"satisfiers" should be stressed upon.
 Motivation '59

Criticism of Herzberg's Two Factor Theory

Herzberg's theory has, however, been criticised by many authors. The
criticism of the theory is based on the following points.
(I) The factors leading to satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not The factors leolii,g
to .Vatisf ac/ion and
really different from each other, It has been contended that dissasjvfiwe ion are
achievement, recognition and responsibility are important for not i-ca f/v diJ/eicnt
from each os/In.
both satisfaction and dissatisfaction, while such dimensions as
security, salary and working conditions are less important. The (Oval-for
t/leo,'V is all over-
(ii) The two factor theory is an over-simplification of the true sznzpljicaiioii of the
relationship between motivation and dissatisfaction. Several tuioe relationship
between motivation
studies showed that one factor can cause job satisfaction for one and [Link].
person and job dissatisfaction for another.
He,'zber''.r jnfrrein-i
(iii) Herzberg's inference regarding differences between satisfiers regarding dtfJerence.v
between san ifiei-s
and motivators cannot be completely accepted. People generally and 50011 lators
attribute the causes of satisfaction to their own achievements. (O1?1W1 be
coindc'tnIi-
But more likely they attribute their dissatisfaction to obstacles accepted.
presented by company's policies or superiors than to their
deficiencies.
Though Herzber's theory has met severe criticism, it has Cast a new
light on the content of work motivation. It has contributed substantially to
Maslows ideas and made them more applicable to the work situation. It
has also contributed to job design technique or job enrichment.

11.10 Similarities and Dissimilarities between Maslow's and

Herzberg's Models of Motivation
A close [Link]
In fact, there is a great similarity between Maslow's and Herzberg's Of Herzbe,- 's 1000/el
models of motivation. A close examination of Herzberg's model indicates indicates s/tat fill-
those employees
that for those employees who have achieved a level of social and who have achieved it
level of social and
economic progress in the society, higher level needs of Maslow (esteem CCOIWI?liC progress
and self-actualisation) are the primary motivators. However, they still must in the society,
higher level needs of
satisfy the lower level needs for the maintenance of the current state. So Maslow (esteem and
self- actualisa tion)
we can say that money might still be a chief motivator for most of are the /)rimilarv
operative employees and also for some low paid managerial people. motivators
Herzberg's model draws a distinction between the two groups of factors,
namely, motivational and maintenance, and points out that the
motivational factors are often derived from the job itself. Most of the Basil fliOdo'!.', assume
i/loll Specific needs
maintenance factors come under comparatively lower order needs and emlesgize bn/zn'iour.
motivational factors are somewhat equivalent to higher order needs. Both
models assume that specific needs energize behaviour.
160 Human Resource Management

Although there are marked similarities in the two models, many

differences exist which are discussed below

Table 11.1 Differances Between Maslow's and Herzberg's Models

Issue Maslow's Model Herzberg's Model
I. Orderofneeds Hierarchical arrangement of needs. No such hierarchical
arrangement.
2. Emphasis Descriptive. Prescriptive.
3. Essence of Unsatisfied needs energize Gratified needs cause
theory behaviour ; this behaviour causes performance.
performance.
4. Motivator Any need can be a motivator if it Only higher order needs
is relatively unsatisfied, serve as motivators.
5. Applicability Takes a general view of the Takes a micro-view and
motivational problems of all deals with work oriented
workers, motivational problems
of professional workers.
6. Factors The existence of some factors The positive and
creates positive attitude and their negative factors are
non-existence creates negative completely different.
attitude.

Diagrammatically we may compare the two models in the way

presented below

Figure 11.4
Maslows Model Herzbergs Model

Challenging work
Achievement
Self-actualisation Growth in the job
Responsibility Motivators
Advancement
Recognition
Esteem
Status
ln'erperssonal relations
Social Company policy and
(Affiliation) administration

Quality of supervision Maintenance

Safety Working conditions factors
Job security
Salary
Physiological
Personal life

MASLOWS AND 1IERZBERGS MODELS OF MOTIVATION

 Motivation 16

11.11 McClelland's Need Theory of Motivation

D. C. McClelland discusses three t y pes of needs
(i) the need for achievement:
(ii) the need for power and
(iii) the need for affiliation.
McClelland is of the opinion that a person with high need for
achievement possesses certain characteristics which enable him to work
better in some situations than in others.
Those characteristics of an achiever are as follows
(a) He prefers tasks in which he can take personal responsibility for the
outcomes;
(b) He sets moderate goals and takes calculated risks;
(c) He wants precise feedback concerning his successes or failure;
(d) He prefers co-workers who are competent despite his personal
feelings about theni.
He also found that the drive for achievin g varies in individuals
according to their personality and cultural back g round. He classified 'fii,yh 4cI,ie'ers (ire
managers as high achievers' and 'low achievers' and suggested that high snore [Link]
ijci,iae,. than 'fiat
achievers are more successful managers than tow achievers'. It is thus achievers
important to identify the personal charactristics of both high achievers
and low achievers if the best is to be obtained Out of people.

11.12 McGregor's Views on Motivation

Doughlas McGregor expressed his views of human nature in two sets 7heorv-X stanrir ta,
the set of Irad!Ii('naf
of assumptions. They are popularly known as 'Theory-X' and Theory-Y'. belief't held, while
Theory-X stands for the set of traditional beliefs held, while Theory-Y Theory- Y stands k,r
the set of beliefi
stands for the set of beliefs based upon researches in behavioural science based upon
which is concerned with modern social views on man at work. These two researches in
behavioural science
theories represent the extreme ranges of assumptions. The managerial winch is concerned
ivitil modern socwl
attitudes and supervisory practices resulting from such assumptions, have views on lawn at
an important hearing on employee behaviour. work.
Theory-X : Theory-X represents the traditional view of management
and is based on the following assumptions
(i) People do not like work and try to avoid it:
(ii) People do not like work, so managers have to control, direct, coerce
and threaten employees to get them to work toward organisational
goals;
(iii) People prefer to be directed, to avoid responsibility, and to want
security; they have little ambition;
(iv) People by nature resist change;
(v) People are gullible, not very bright.

11 L 1-2 1
 162 Human Resource Management

Managers who accept theory-X assumptions have a tendency to

structure, control and closely supervise their employees. The s e managers
Management
practices 1/1(11 think that external control is clearly appropriate for dealing with
develop froni unreliable, irresponsible and immature people. Drawing heavily on
iliea,-v-X
(ISSUfliplzmjs will Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McGregor concluded thattheory-X
ofle n fail to activate assumptions about the nature of man are generally inaccurate and the
niil,t',d,wlsw work,
tolvard management practices that develop from these assumptions will often fail
()rganisatiui,aI
to motivate individuals to work toward organisational goals. Management
by direction and control may not succeed as it is a questionable way of
motivating people whose physiological and safety needs are reasonably
satisfied and whose social, esteem and self-actualization needs are
becoming predominant.
In view of the drawbacks of theory-X, McGregor developed an
alternative theory of human behaviour called Theory-Y.
Theory-V : Theory-Y presents a modern view of mana g ement and is
based on the following assumptions.
(i) People do not naturally dislike work; work is a natural part of their
lives;
(ii) People are internally motivated to reach objectives to which they are
committed
(iii) People are committed to goals to the degree that they receive
personal rewards when they reach their objectives:
(iv) People will both seek and accept responsibility under favourable
conditions;
(v) People have the capacity to be innovative in solving organisational
problems;
(vi) People are bright, but under most organisational conditions their
7heorv Y type potentials are under-utilized.
managers hell) , their Managers who ac cepttheory-Y assumptions about nature of man do
employees mature
b y subjecting then: not attempt to structure, control or closely supervise the employees.
to progressively Instead, these managers help their employees mature by subjecting them
less external
and allowing them to progressively less external control and allowing them to assume more
to assume more and
more self -control.
and more self-control. Employees derive the satisfaction of social, esteem
and self-actualisation needs within this kind of environment.
Thus theory-Y aims at the establishment of an environment in which
Creatniçtl;'njocrt,,jc employees can best achieve their personal goals by consulting,
e nviro,zmeni participating and communicating themselves to the objectives of the
organisation. In this proces, employees are expected to exercise a large
degree of internal motivation.
In a nutshell it may seem that Maslow, McClelland, Herzberg and
McGregor view motivation from different perspectives. But basically they
 Motivation 163

emphasize similar sets of relationships. Maslow stresses the rarely Mcgreç'or views
non rat inn li-intl the
satisfied higher level needs as the motivating force. McClelland
perspective )J•
mentioned that the drive for achieving varies in individuals according to managerial attitude.
their personality and cultural background. Herzberg views "satisfiers" as
motivators after the "hygiene factors' have done away with
dissatisfaction. McGregor's theory, which is based on assumptions
concerning the motives of individuals, views motivation from the
perspective of managerial attitude.
11.13 Alderfer's ERG (Existence, Relatedness and Growth)
Theory
This theory suggests that peoples needs are grouped into three
possible overlapping categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.
• Existence needs These are constantly and pervasively important in
the work setting. Some of them are job security, suitable working
conditions, reasonable working hours, pay and fringe benefits.
• Relatedness needs These needs focus on how people relate to their
social environment. It involves the relationship with significant
others—family, supervisors, co-workers, subordinates, friends and so
on.
• Growth needs These needs are those that compell a person to make
creative or productive efforts for himself or herself. The satisfaction
of growth is what a person needs to experience in a sense of
completeness as a human being.
ERG theory holds that the less existence needs are satisfied the more
they will be desired; but the more existence needs are satisfied, the more
relatedness needs will be desired. The less relatedness needs are satisfied.
We more both existence and relatedness needs will be desired; but the
more relatedness needs are satisfied, the more growth needs are desired. In
this way, Alderfer distinguishes between chronic needs which persist over
a period of time and the episode needs which are situational and can
change according to the environment.

11.14 Equity Theory of Motivation

This theory, developed by J. Stacy Adams, is based on the following
two assumptions about human behaviour
(i) Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect certain ll1(hit'idlWlS mitake
contributions
outcomes (rewards). Inputs include such things as the person's past (inputs) for which
training and experience, special knowledge, personal characteristics the y expect certain
outcomes (rewards)
etc. Outcomes include pay, recognition. promotion, prestige, fringe
benefits etc.
164 Human Resource Management

Eqtiitv exists when (ii) Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is
iFI(Ifl'j(/(((5/
(Ill
('OIICht(1's that
satisfactory, by comparing their inputs and outcomes to those of
his//icr oii' others in the form of a ratio. Equity exists when an individual
O UUotne/1np14 I r011o
is ('q:(oI 10 that of concludes that his/her own outcome/input ratio is equal to that ui
1)1/IC! - people. other people.
The essential aspects of the equity theory may be shown as follow
Outcomes by aperson Outcomes-by another_person
Inputs by a person Inputs by another person
A person's There should be a balance of the outcomes/inputs relationship for one
!1ntito1u;nlei)yR
person in comparison with that for another person. If the person thinks
peri_en'e.r his reward
10 be equitable or
that the rewards are greater than what is considerable, s/he may work
not harder. it the person perceives the rewards as equitable, s/he probably will
continue at the same level of output. if the person feels that s/he is
inequitably rewarded, s/he may he dissatisfied, reduce the quantity or
quality of output, or even leave the organisation. The three situations of
equity theory are illustrated in the following figure

Figure 11.5
[Link]
Dissa(.sjact u n. Reduced
output. De part ure Iron 1
rcwaids
)l iI1SI 1(111

I3ukinee or
nih:ij;uice of Eqiiiuihle Com cu_nat ion at 111C siine

WNN',U'LIS
rewui-ds level of output

More 111all
cjuitahle F larder woi k
rewards

EQUITY MODEL OF MOTIVATION

[source H. Weilirich and II. Koontz. ti1anacencenj . .4 Global [Link] (10111 edition). p4741
This theory suggests that people are motivated to seek social equity in
the rewards they receive for performance,
11.15 Expectancy Theory of Motivation
This theory is based on the followin g assumptions developed by
Victor H. Vroom.
(I) Behaviour is determined by a combination of forces in the individual
and in the environment.
(ii) People make decisions about their own behaviour in organisations.
(iii) Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.
(iv) People make choices from among alternative plans of behaviour
based on their perceptions of the extent to which a given behaviour
will lead to desired outcomes.
 .Motivation 165

This theory may be shown in the following diagram

Figure 11.6
First level Second level
Outcome outcome
Individual Individual Oreanisationa! Individual
effon perfonance iewanjs
ON.
goals
(

Expectancy Instrumentality
EXPECTANCY MODEL OF MOTIVATION
Vroom's theory may be stated in the following model showing the
components of motivation
Force (Motivation) =f (valence x expectancy)
The terms used in this model may be defined in the following way !1401i1'UtloJl i the
0U!L00II(' iI the
Force : It is the strength of a person's motivation. sue, 11u (4
Valence : It is the strength of a persons preference (feelings) for a •( / i (CU (
fiw (1 /viJiF(-1(lar
particular outcome or reward. re Un/il U, rlitj (/1/ 1 /'•
Expectancy : It is the probability that a particular action will lead to ihe ,robni/n/i i\ ut, II
(1 /U/Itieu/nJ (((I/U/I
desired behaviour. In another way, it is the level of individual belief that a will 1 (II! 1(1 de%irrd

particular effort will result in a certain performance level. behal (I/fir.

Outcomes : Outcomes are the end-results of a particular behaviour

and we classify them as first or second level outputs/outcomes. First-level
outcomes are the direct results of some level of performance. Second-
level outcomes are viewed as consequences to which first level outcomes
are expected to lead.
Instrumentality : It refers to the relationship between performance E i, (( 11/It I • 1 ih eo,t'
.s,([Link].( Mat
(first level outcome) and the reward or performance's consequences /10111 ((11 1(1/I (le/ >e,uR
on lloti ,n,u/, of
(second-level outcome). something/t it e 0(1/ti
This theory suggests that motivation depends on two things—how It/id hiit like/v tie
iliwk we are to get
much of something we want and how likely we think we are to get it. it.

11.16 Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

This theory is based on the concepts of operant conditioning Beluit'io,,r
of /)eOj)le
developed by B. F. Skinner. It argues that the behaviour of people is is hirgelv /elermn used
Fit' its consequences.
largely determined by its consequences. In other wards, those actions that
tend to have positive or pleasant consequences tend to be repeated more
often in future, while those actions that tend to have repeated negative or
The foeu. (1/
unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated again. m'(-infif (C(I??e,i1
The reinforcement theory suggests that managers should try to 1/00/V is ujioiz
iliOdh IVilO,' the
structure the Contingencies of rewards and punishments on the job in such /)s'hai'ioiim' (.(/ pc/I/lie
a way that the consequences of effective job behaviour are positive while ./ii i/se jill).
166 Human Resource Management

the consequences of ineffective work behaviour are negative or

unpleasant. The focus of this approach is upon changing or modifying
the behaviour of people oil job. That is why it is also regarded as
An event is said to organisational behaviour modification.
be reinforcing f the The basic notion underlying reinforcement theory is the concept of
rIco! following
sop/jr behaviour reinforcement itself. An event is said to be reinforcing if the event
makes the behaviour following some behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur
snore likel y to occur
again in tin' future. again in the future.
In organisational settings, four basic kinds of reinforcement can result
from behaviour which is discussed briefly as under
• Positive reinforcement A method of strengthening behaviour with
rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behaviour is performed.
• Avoidance/negative reinforcement Used to strengthen behaviour by
avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behaviour
was not performed.
• Punishment Used to weaken undesired behaviours by using
negative outcomes or unpleasant consequence when the behaviour is
performed.
• Extinction Used to weaken undesired behaviours by simply
ignoring or not reinforcing that behaviour.

11.17 Special 1\iotivational Techniques

It has already been stated that motivation is so complex and
individualised that there can be no single best answer to the question as to
what a manager should do to motivate his sub-ordinates. But experience
suggets that they can use some specialised techniques to motivate their
sub-ordinates.
(1) Management by Objective (MBO) and goal setting : MBO is a
In MBO, i?1Otiva(jOfl
is created by process of collaborative goal-setting between a manager and a
collaborative goal- subordinate with the understanding that the degree of goal attainment
setting and promise
of rewards to the by the subordinate will be a major factor in evaluating and rewarding
employee. the subordinate's performance. When the manager sits with the
subordinates, jointly establishes goals for them and agree that the
future rewards will be based on goal attainment then s/he is expected
to be more motivated to work toward the goals that merit them.
(2) Participation in management Subordinates are likely to be
motivated the most when they are not only consulted but are also
Participation of allowed to participate in decision-making. In fact the right kind of
emplo yees in
decision -making participation yields both motivation and knowledge valuable for
motivates the!?! enterprise success.
Participation appeals to the need for affiliation and acceptance. It is a
 Motivation 167

means of recognition and thus enhances subordinates eagerness to work

harder.
(3) Monetary incentives : Money can never be overlooked as a
motivator. Whether in the fcrm of bonuses, piecework, or any other
Monetar y incentives
incentive pay, money is important. Anti, as some writers have pointed work, as a great
out, money is often more than monetary value. It can also mean boost to the
power or status. emplo y ee 'S
willingness to work.
In order to use money as a motivator, a manager has to remember the Money is a good
following nwtn'alor when it is
pcui substaniially in
(i) Money is an urgent means of achieving a minimum standard of recognit(mi of
living, although this minimum has a way of getting higher as 1i e,:la razan cc.
people become more affluent.
(ii) An enterprise can make its wages and salaries competitive within
their industr y and their geographic area to attract and hold
people.
(iii) People usually evaluate their compensation in the light of what
their equals are receiving.
(iv) Unless bonus for managers are based to a major extent on
individual performance, an enterprise is not buying much
motivation with them. In so far as possible, compensation has to
be based on performance.
(v) Money can motivate only when the prospective payment is large
relative to a person's income.
(4) Modified work week/flexible working hours There is considerable
interest among employees in altering the work week to suit their
convenience better. The primary motivational implications of the
modified work week are that modification in their routine helps them
satisfy their higher-level needs and provides them with an
opportunity to fulfil several of their needs simultaneously. Flexible ronamleS
flatter i/ic ego of the
By allowing employees more independence in terms of when they emplo yee about his
come to work and when they leave, managers acknowledge and show or her self-control.
The freedom wit h
"esteem for the employees' ability to exercise self-control. It is hoped that working hours helps
employees will respond with higher levels of motivation. Modified the employee
accommodate higher
workweeks give employees the opportunity to fulfil a variety of needs. needs, which fact
acts as a good
Using flexible working hours, a person can contribute to the organisation motivator.
and still have time, for example, to study for the MBA programme or to
carry on business as a part-time occupation.
(5) Quality of working life (QWL) This is an important motivational
technique, used by managers in western societies. QWL is not only a
very broad approach to job enrichment but also an interdisciplinary Q VL is a promising
field of enquiry and action combining industrial relations, industrial means 1(1 Iinpi'ovC
working condition
engineering, industrial psychology and sociology, organisation and productivity.
theory and development, leadership theory and motivation, etc.
 68 Human Resource Management

Managers have regarded QWL as a promising means of dealing with

stagnating productivity. Workers and trade union leaders have also seen it
as a way to improve working conditions and productivity and also as a
means of justifying higher pay. It may also help minimising labour
disputes and ansuring industrial democracy.
(6) Effective criticism This can be a springboard for improving an
employees behaviour and performance. Adopting it positive
Con vlructl 'e and
carefully worded approach makes criticism less difficult as well as more effective. The
_ritjcjs,n of the manager should examine his or her own motives before criticising.
eniplove' 'x
peiforniance can The manager should plan the presentation of his criticism in the best
work, as a possible form with a view to motivating rather than rebuking him or
motivating factor
for his or her her criticism should apply to the use of personal efforts for
ilflflC(/j(lt' sell'
improVe/li ent.
improvement now, not next week or next month. Specific time
schedules for improvements are also to be set up.
(7) Job enrichment : Making jobs challenging and meaningful is an
accepted way of motivating employees greatly. In job enrichment,
the attempt is to build into jobs a higher sense of challenge and
achievement. Jobs may be enriched by variety. But they also may be
enriched by—(a) giving workers more freedom at workplace (b)
giving subordinates a feeling of personal responsibility for their
tasks; (c) encouraging participation of workers and interaction
between them; (d) giving subordinates feedback on their job
performance; and (e) involving workers in the analysis and change of
physical aspects of the work environment, such as cleanliness, layout,
temperature, lighting, etc.
Several studies tend to prove that workers will work harder if their jobs
are enriched and expanded so as to give them greater control over their
work and more freedom from their supervisor.
Job enrichment has certain limitations also. Cost factor, very often,
Job enrichment can comes to hinder job enrichment. Jobs requiring hi-tech specialisation,
work as a powerful special machinery and technology may also suffer from being too
motivator, but it
could be costly and meaningful to workers. It merits mention that the limitations of job
ineffectual where
high skill levels and
enrichment apply mainly to jobs requiring low skill levels. The jobs of
technology are managers, professionals or technicians already contain varying degrees of
required.
challenge and accomplishment.
In order to make job enrichment effective, the following approaches
can be used
(I) manager should have a better understanding of what sub-ordinates
want;
(ii) if productivity increases are the main goals of enrichment, the
programme must show how workers will benefit;
 Motivation 169

(iii) it has to be recognised that people like to be consulted, to be Job enrichment i.s
effective/v c/nIle
involved, and to be given an opportunity to offer suggestions; when the
(iv) people like to feel that their managers are truly concerned with their proraiwnes of the
enterprise are
welfare. They like to know what they are doing and why. They like participati i'elv
to be appreciated and recognised for their work. 1raij,j. (111(1 appear
beneficial to the
eniplovees.
Case 11.1 All about Personality, Mamun Leaves the Company
Firms are downsizing, consumer confidence is plunging. Given the uncertain
economic climate, why would anyone give up a steady job?
It may seem odd, but good people—valuable employees—still do it every day.
Usually, they leave for better positions elsewhere. Take Marnun, an experienced
underwriter in a national insurance company, who scribbed the following remarks on
his exit interview questionnaire
This job is not right for me. I like to have more input on decisions that affect
me more of a chance to show what I can do. I don't get enough feedback to tell if !'ni
doing a good job or not, and the company keeps people in the dark about where it's
headed. Basically, I feel like an interchangeable part most of the time.
In answer to the question about whether the company could have done anything
to keep him, Mamun replied, "probably not.
Why do so many promising emplyees leave their jobs'? And why do so many
others stay on but perform at minimal levels for the lack of better alternatives? One
of the main reasons—Mamun's reason can be all but invisible, because it's so
common in so many organisations : a system-wide failure to keep good people.
Company should be concerned about employees like Mamun. By investing in
them, they may actually help reduce turnover, increase productivity, protect training
investments and teamwork.
Human resource professionals and managers can contribute to corporate success
by encouraging employee's empowerment, security, identity, connectedness', and
competence. How? By recognizing the essential components of keeping their best
people and by understanding what enhances and diminishes those components.
Mamun doubts that his company will never change, but other organisations are
taking positive steps to focus on and enhance employee retention. As a result, they're
reducing turnover, improving quality, increasing productivity, and protecting their
training investments.

Questions
1. Do you think that Mamun's self-esteem had anything to do with his leaving the
firm?
2. What do you think were Mamun's satisfaction with and commitment to the job
and firm he is leaving?
3. What lesson can this company learn from the case of Marnun? What can and
should it now do?
[Adopted with modification from Fred Luthans, Organisational Behaviour,
Boston . McGraw Hill, 1998, p. 1571

11It \1-22
170 Human Resource Management

Case 11.2 : A matter of Perception, Space [Link]

Hasan Au, deputy manager for a ready made garment factory, is chairperson of
the committee for space utilization. The committee is made up of the various
department heads to the factory. The factory manager has given Mr. Ali the
responsibility for seeing whether the various office operations, and store facilities of
the factory are being optimally utilized, The factory is beset by rising costs and the
need for more space. The factory manager wants to be sure that the currently available
space is being utilized properly.
Mr. Ali opened up the first committee meeting. Then Ali asked the members if'
they had any initial observation to make. The office manager stated, "Well, I know
we are using every possible inch of room that we have available to us. But when I
walk out in the factory there seems to be plenty of room." The production manager
quickly replied, "We do not have a lot of space. You office people have the luxury
facilties. My supervisors don't even have room for a desk and a file cabinet." Mr. Au
at this point said, 'Obviously, we have different interpretations of space utilization
around here. Before further discussion I think it would be best if we have some
objective facts to work with. I am going to ask our factory engineer to provide us
with some statistics on factory and office layouts before our next meeting. Today's
meeting is adjourned.'

Questions
1. What perceptual principles ai'e evident in this case?
2. Do you think Mr. Al's approach to getting "objective facts" from statistics on
factory and office layout will effect the perceptions of the office and production
managers? How does such information affect perception in general?
(Adopted with minor modifications from Fred Luthans, Organisational
Behaviour, Boston, McGraw Hill, 8th ed. pp. 126-27)

Azad and Kamal were close friends and both were MBA students. They enjoyed!
doing collaborative work and, for the most part, did very well. A few weeks prior to
an exam, Azad and Kainal would meet and identify the material that was to be covered
on the exam. Each would then take one-half of the material, review it, and condense
it into relevant study notes. After a week of preparing the notes, the two would meet
again and exchange copies of their respective work. They would then set aside three
hours each night for the reminder of the time before the exam to study, each quizzing
the other on the material until they were both confident that they understood it.
Their system was successful. On seven previous exams, they scored within five
points of each other. Deciding that this was a desirable learning mechanism, they
continued. However, the results began to change significantly. Kamal was now
constantly scoring the highest marks on the exams in the class while Azad was just
making D's. The two were astounded, and after reviewing each other's tests, could not
believe that such a difference was possible. But this occurred in all the classes that
the two took together, so the possibility that there was a personality difference with
the professor was highly unlikely.
Azad is depressed. He doesn't know what to do. Evidently his studying is not
paying off. He has decided to complete the remainder of the semester studying on his
own.
Azad finished the semester with a 1.9 GPA (on a scale of 4.0). Demoralized
about being placed on probation, he has decided to leave school.
 Motivation III
Questions
1. Analyze Azad's behavior in terms of the expectancy theory.
2. What should Azad have done prior to taking a semester off from school?
3. If you were Azad's guidance counselor, how would you motivate him to return
to school?
4. How could such a discrepancy exist between Azad's and Kamal's grades?
[Adopted with modification from : David A. DcCenzo and Stephen P. Robins.
Personnel/Homan Resource Management, Delhi. Prentice Hall of India, 1998, p.336.

Hasan is a twenty-six-year-old young man who was honorably discharged from

the service four years ago. Since that time, Hasan has been attending a local private
university in Dhaka studying personnel management. Entering his last semester,
Hasan decided that he should be preparing for his job search. Putting together the
necessary materials, he mailed his resumes to a number of companies. Six weeks
later, he received a positive response from ABC company, a large supplier of leather
goods to government.
Interviewing for the position of personnel assistant, Hasan knew that he had
sound qualifications. He learned, however, that he was competing with Mousumi a
twenty-two-year-old university classmate. During the interview process, it was
determined that both Hasan and Mousumi were equally qualified. Hasan however, was
given preference and was subsequently offered the job. Mousumi on the other hand,
filed a suit against ABC claiming that she was a victim of discrimination.
Questions
1. Do you believe that the company discriminated against Mousumi in giving
preference to Hasan? Discuss,
2. As a personnel specialist at ABC, what explanation would you give to
Mousumi?
3. Is there any law that would be supportive of Hasan's hiring?
[Adopted with modification from David A. DeCenzo and Stephen P. Robins,
Personnel/Human Resource Management, Delhi, Prentice Hall of India, 1998.1

IONSTOANS\yER
1. Explain the assumptions about motivation.
2. What are the assumptions about people under Theory X and theory Y?
3. Describe the assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y.
4. How would you describe the human factors that affect management?
5. What do you mean by motivation? Explain the motivation process with the
help of a diagram.
6. Distinguish between motivation, motivator and motivating?
7. What is satisfaction? Describe the need-want-satisfaction chain with the help of
a diagram.
8. Name the need theories of motivation. Elaborate with critical appreciation
Mas low's Hierarchy of Needs theory.
9. Critically discuss MeClelland's Need Theory of Motivation
10. What do you understand by the "Two-factor ( Motivat ion-Hygience) Theory of
Motivation'?
11. What do you mean by 'Expectancy Theory"? Critically discuss the "Porter and
Lawler Model" based on Expectancy Theory.
172 Human Resource Management

12. Write a critical appreciation of the Equity Theory' developed by J. Stacy

Adams.
13. What do you understand by the "Reinforcement Theory of Motivation"?
14. Do you agree that motivation and commitment are higher when employees
participate in the setting of goals? Discuss,
15. Name the different theories of motivation. Discuss the theory which you
consider most suitable for motivating our managers.
16. Describe the special motivational techniques used for the purpose of motivating
employees.
17. What do you mean by monetary incentive? Which factors should a manager
remember in order to use money as an incentive?
18. Elaborate on the non-monetary motivational techniques that are suitable for
industrial workers in Bangladesh.
IndicateTrue or False
I. Motivation is a type of expectation.
2. Motivation is often referred to as the 'dynamic' of behaviour.
3. Motivation creates conditions in which employees work willingly.
4. Motivation may be considered in piece-meal.
5. Motivation is always negative.
6. It is not difficult to understand peoples behaviour,
7. Cultural variation makes differences in human motives.
8. A satisfied need is a motivator.
9. According to Herzberg motivation can be brought about by eliminating factors
that can create job dissatisfaction.
10. If the person perceives the rewards as equitable, s/he probably will continue at
the same level of output.
11. Wants give rise to satisfaction.
12. Motivation is a physiological phenomenon.
13. Need for food is a social need.
14. Maslow has shown empiral evidence to support his theory.
15. According to Herzberg, if employees are to be motivated satisfiers are to be
stressed upon.
16. In Herzberg's model "status' is a motivator.
17, One of the assumptions of theory 'y' is. "people prefer to be directed, to avoid
responsibility

U Multiple choice questions

"I the most appropriate answer
1. Motivation may be defined as the act of
(a) improving productivity only.
(b) stimulating someone to take a desired course of action.
(c) working more and more.
(d) rendering some public service.
2. One of the main features of motivation is that it is
(a) financial in nature.
(b) profit-oriented.
(c) efficiency-oriented.
(d) goal-oriented.
3. Herzberg's theory of motivation is based on
(a) two types of factors.
(b) productivity.
 Motivation 173

(c) managerial efficiency.

(d) assumptions.
4. McClelland found that the drive for achieving arises in
individuals according to their
(a) personality and cultural background.
(b) desire for earning more.
(c) social need.
(d) psychological make-up.
5. Equity exists when an individual concludes that
(a) s/he is getting more than what he/she deserves,
(b) s/he should get more.
(c) his/her own input/output ratio is less than that of other people.
(d) his/her own outcome/input ratio is equal to that of other people.
6. Managers have considerable latitude in making
(a) employees happy.
(b) individual arrangements in motivation.
(c) arrangements to earn more,
(d) workers work hard.
7. Motivation contributes to a person's level of
(a) earning.
(b) understanding.
(c) commitment.
(d) satisfaction.
8. The end result of the need-want-satisfaction chain is
(a) motivation.
(b) satisfaction.
(c) need.
(d) productivity.
9. Theory X assumptions are
(a) democratic.
(b) pessimistic.
(c) optimistic.
(d) participative.
10. Theory V assumptions are
(a) optimistic.
(b) autocratic.
(c) pessimistic.
(d) production-oriented.
11. Theories X and Y were coined by
(a) Elton Mayo.
(b) Fayol.
(c) Doglas McGregor.
(d) F. W. Taylor.
12. A satisfied need
(a) is not a motivator.
(b) is a motivator.
(c) improves productivity.
(d) lowers productivity.
13. The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation was coined by
(a) Abraham Maslow.
(b) Frederick Herzberg.
(c) David C. McClelland.
(d) L. W. Porter.
14. A person's needs
(a) can change over time.
(b) have inverse relation with income.
174 Human Resource Management
(c) remain static.
(d) cannot be satisfied.
15. Individuals with the need for power usually
(a) demand more money.
(b) are polite and gentle.
(c) seek positions of leadership in organisations.
(d) are autocratic.
16. MeClelland's theory highlights the Importance of
(a) social needs in motivation.
(b) matching the individual and the job.
(c) monetary incentives.
(d) power.
17. Expectancy Theory of Vroom may be stated as
(a) Expectance = Valence x force.
(b) Valence = Force x expectancy.
(c) Force = Velence x expectancy.
(d) Force = Expectancy x reward.
18. Equity can be defined as the belief that one is being treated
(a) on equal terms with one's colleagues.
(b) fairly relative to the treatment of others.
(c) as a good performer.
(d)as a friend.
19. The Reinforcement theory was developed by
(a) McCelland.
(b)Frederick Herzberg.
(c) F. W. Taylor.
(d) B. F. Skinner.
20. Participation In management enhances subordinates'
(a) lust for power.
(b) willingness to mix with others.
(c)craze for more money.
(d) eagerness to work harder.
21. People usually evaluate their compensation In the light of what
their
(a) equals are receiving.
(b) productivity is.
(c) employer is capable of giving.
(d) friends are earning in other organisations.
22. tmployees like to feel that their managers are truly concerned
with their
(a) welfare.
(b) productivity.
(c) smartness.
(d)treatment.
Exercise
I. Interview some of the workers/employees of a company you know of and ask
them what motivates them the most.
For further study
1. Griffin, Management, Boston Honghton Mifflin Company, 1984,
2. Heinz Weihrich and Harold Koontz, Management A Global Perspective,
McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1994.
3. James A. F. Stoner. et. al., Management, New Delhi Prentice Hall of India,
1997.