Module - 1

LU 1.2 - Mechanics and Motion

What is Mechanics?
 Branch of physics that studies motion and the forces causing it.
 Explains why objects move, stay still, speed up, or slow down.
 Includes:
o Motion of objects
o Forces causing changes in motion
o Energy involved in motion

Branches of Mechanics
1. Statics → Study of objects at rest (balanced forces).
2. Dynamics → Study of forces causing motion.
o Kinematics → Describes motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration)
without considering forces.
o Kinetics → Explains motion with forces and masses (Newton’s Laws).

Scalars and Vectors

 Scalar → Only magnitude (how much).
Example: Distance, Speed, Time, Mass.
 Vector → Magnitude + Direction.
Example: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force.

Example: Walk 10 m east, then 5 m west.

 Distance = 10 + 5 = 15 m (scalar)
 Displacement = 10 – 5 = 5 m east (vector)

Units:

 Distance/Displacement → m
 Speed/Velocity → m/s
 Acceleration → m/s²
Statics (Objects at Rest / Balanced)
Key Concepts:

1. Force → Push or pull. (Book on table: gravity down, table pushes up)
2. Equilibrium → All forces & torques cancel. (No motion/rotation)
3. Moment (Torque) → Turning effect.
Formula: Torque = Force × Distance
(Longer wrench = more torque)
4. Resultant Force → Single force representing combined forces.

Conditions for Equilibrium:

 ∑F = 0 (No net force → no translation)

 ∑τ = 0 (No net torque → no rotation)

Examples: Ladder leaning, bridge holding cars, person standing still.

Dynamics (Why Things Move)

 Explains motion with forces (gravity, friction, push, pull).
 Based on Newton’s 3 Laws:

1. First Law (Inertia):

o Object stays at rest or uniform motion unless force acts.
o Example: Book on table stays still, skateboard keeps rolling until friction stops
it.
2. Second Law (F = ma):
o Force = Mass × Acceleration.
o Example: Heavier car needs more force to accelerate.
3. Third Law (Action-Reaction):
o Every action has equal & opposite reaction.
o Example: Gun recoil, pushing against wall while on skateboard.

Kinematics (Describing Motion)

Focuses on how objects move (not why).

1. Displacement (Δx):
o Change in position. Vector.
o Formula: Δx = xfinal – xinitial
2. Velocity (v):
o Rate of change of displacement. Vector.
o Average velocity (v̅) = Total Displacement / Total Time
o Instantaneous velocity → velocity at a specific moment.
3. Acceleration (a):
o Rate of change of velocity. Vector.
 o Average acceleration = Δv / Δt
o Instantaneous acceleration → acceleration at that moment.

Example Problems
Problem 1: Girl walks 100 m east in 50 s, then 60 m west in 30 s.

 Displacement = 100 – 60 = 40 m east

 Time = 80 s
 Avg. velocity = 40 / 80 = 0.5 m/s east

Problem 2: Car speeds up from 10 m/s → 30 m/s in 5 s.

 Avg. acceleration = (30 – 10) / 5 = 4 m/s²

Units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K

Amount of
Substance mole mol

Luminous Intensity candela cd

Force newton N
Physical Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol

Energy joule J

Power watt W

Pressure pascal Pa

Frequency hertz Hz

Electric Charge coulomb C

Voltage volt V

Always use consistent units.

Example: F = ma → if m in kg and a in m/s², F will be in N.

Practice Questions (with answers)

1. Walk 12 m east, 5 m west → Distance & Displacement?
o Distance = 17 m
o Displacement = 7 m east

2. Box weight = 50 N on table → Normal Force?

o Normal = 50 N upward

3. Car travels 80 m north (40s) then 40 m south (20s).

o Displacement = 80 – 40 = 40 m north
o Time = 60 s
o Avg. velocity = 40/60 = 0.67 m/s north

4. 2 kg object pushed with 10 N → Acceleration?

o a = F/m = 10/2 = 5 m/s²
 5. Convert 72 km/h to m/s.
o 72 × 1000 / 3600 = 20 m/s

Summary
 Scalars → magnitude only.
 Vectors → magnitude + direction.
 Statics → balance of forces (rest).
 Dynamics → why motion occurs (Newton’s Laws).
 Kinematics → how motion happens (displacement, velocity, acceleration).
 Units → must be consistent for correct calculations.
 LU 1.3 - Newton’s Laws of Motion
Introduction
 Newton’s 3 Laws explain how and why things move.
 Used in drones, cars, smartphones, AR/VR, robotics.
 Discovered by Sir Isaac Newton (17th century).

Newton’s First Law – Law of Inertia

👉 Definition: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion (constant speed in a straight
line) unless acted upon by a net external force.

 Inertia → Resistance to change in motion.

 Inertia ∝ Mass (heavier objects have more inertia).

👉 Examples:

 Car stops suddenly → body lurches forward.

 Book on table → stays still until pushed.
 Bowling ball harder to move than tennis ball.

👉 Applications in Tech:

 Autonomous vehicles → brakes overcome inertia.

 Smartphones → gyroscopes use inertia to detect motion.
 AR/VR → simulate inertia for realistic motion.

Newton’s Second Law – Force and Acceleration

👉 Formula:
F=m×aF = m \times a

 Force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration.

👉 Examples:

 Pushing a swing harder → more acceleration.

 Heavier car needs more force to accelerate.

👉 Problems:

1. Suitcase → m = 12 kg, F = 18 N → a = F/m = 1.5 m/s².

2. Cart → m = 25 kg, a = 0.8 m/s² → F = m × a = 20 N.
3. Robot → F = 50 N, a = 2.5 m/s² → m = F/a = 20 kg.
Newton’s Third Law – Action and Reaction
👉 Definition: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
👉 Examples:

 Gun recoil → bullet forward, gun backward.

 Skateboard → push wall, you roll back.
 Rocket → gases push down, rocket moves up.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

 Balanced Forces → Equal & opposite, no change in motion.
o Example: Book on table (gravity down = normal force up).

 Unbalanced Forces → Not equal, causes acceleration (change in speed or direction).

o Example: Kicking a soccer ball.

👉 Problems:

1. Box on table: Weight = 49 N, Normal = 49 N → Balanced, in equilibrium.

2. Cart: Push = 10 N, Friction = 4 N → Net Force = 6 N → Unbalanced, accelerates.
3. Car: Driving = 600 N, Air resistance = 600 N → Net Force = 0 → No acceleration
(constant velocity).
4. Object: Pull right 30 N, Pull left 30 N → Balanced, no motion/constant motion.
5. Toy car: Push = 15 N, Friction = 10 N → Net Force = 5 N right → Unbalanced,
moves right.

Summary
1. First Law (Inertia): Objects resist change in motion.
2. Second Law: F = m × a → Force causes acceleration.
3. Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
4. Balanced forces → steady motion / rest.
5. Unbalanced forces → change in motion (acceleration).
 LU 1.4 - Equations of Motion

Motion in One Dimension and Kinematics

* Why learn about motion?
Every day, you experience motion: you walk, ride in a car,
watch a train pass by, or drop a ball. But have you ever
wondered:
 How does your phone’s fitness tracker count steps or
calculate your jogging speed?
 How does Google Maps predict your arrival time, even
when you stop at traffic signals?
 How do drones and self-driving cars adjust speed so
smoothly?
All these technologies rely on the physics of motion,
specifically a branch called kinematics. Kinematics helps us
describe and predict motion using equations.
Before we can understand complex systems like robots or
drones, we need to start simple—with motion along a straight
line, also called one-dimensional (1D) motion.

* What is one-dimensional (1D) motion?

In one-dimensional motion, an object moves along a straight
line, either forward/backward or upward/downward.
Examples:
 A train moving on a straight railway track.
 A car driving down a straight road.
 An elevator moving up and down.
Here, the motion happens along one axis only. We don’t
worry about turns or curves.
To study this, we choose one direction as positive (e.g.,
forward or upward) and the opposite as negative (backward
or downward). This ―sign convention‖ is very important for
solving problems.

*The building blocks of motion:To describe how something

moves, we use four main physical quantities:
a) Displacement (s or ∆x)
 Displacement is the change in position of an object,
including the direction.
 It’s not the total distance traveled but the net shift from
the starting point.
Example: A runner moves 100 m forward, then 50 m back.
 Distance traveled = 100 + 50 = 150 m
 Displacement = +50 m (net forward movement)
Unit: meter (m)

b) Velocity (v)
  Velocity tells us how fast an object changes its
displacement and in which direction.
 If the object moves forward, velocity is positive; if
backward, it’s negative.
Example:
 +60 km/h → forward motion
 –60 km/h → reverse motion
Unit: m/s (meters per second)

c) Acceleration (a)
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
 Positive acceleration means speeding up (in the chosen
direction).
 Negative acceleration (or deceleration) means slowing
down.
Example: Pressing the brakes causes negative acceleration.
Unit: m/s²

d) Time (t)
 Time is simply the duration of motion.
 Measured using a clock or stopwatch.
Unit: seconds (s)
* Symbols and Units
Symbol Meaning Unit
u Initial velocity m/s
v Final velocity m/s
a Acceleration m/s²
t Time s
s Displacement m
g Acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/s²
Conversion Tip: To convert km/h to m/s, multiply by 5/18.
Example: 72 km/h × 5/18 = 20 m/s.

5) Kinematic Equations of Motion

When an object moves under constant acceleration, we can
predict its velocity, displacement, or time using three
equations.

Equation 1: Final Velocity

V = u + at
This gives the velocity of the object after time t.
You can use this when time, acceleration, and initial
velocity are known and you want to find the final velocity
Example #1:
A car starts from rest and accelerates at 2 m/s² for 5 seconds.
What is its final velocity?
Solution:
Step 1: Write down the known values
 Initial velocity, u=0 (since the car starts from rest)
 Acceleration, a=2 m/s2
 Time, t=5 s
We need to find: Final velocity (v)

Step 2: Recall the equation of motion

V = u + at
Step 3: Substitute the values
v=0+(2)(5)
v=10 m/s
Final Answer:
The final velocity of the car is 10 m/s

Equation 2: Displacement after time t

s = u t + ½ a t2
This tells us how far the object has moved in time t.
You can use this when you know initial velocity, time, and
acceleration and want to calculate displacement
Example 2:
A ball is thrown upward with a velocity of 20 m/s. How high
does it go in 2 seconds? (Take a = -9.8 m/s², upward as
positive)
Solution:
Step 1: Write down the known values
 Initial velocity, u=20 m/s
 Time, t=2 s
 Acceleration, a=−9.8 m/s2 (negative because gravity acts
downward)
 We need: Displacement s (height reached in 2 seconds)

Step 2: Recall the equation of motion

S = u t + ½ a t2
Step 3: Substitute the values
S =(20)(2)+1/2 (−9.8)(22)
S =40+ 1/2 (−9.8)(4)
S = 40 - 19.6
S =20.4 m
Final Answer:
The ball goes up to a height of 20.4 meters in 2 seconds.

Equation 3: Relation between velocity and displacement

(no time)
V2 = u2 + 2as
Useful when time is not given.
You can use this when time is not known, but you
have acceleration, initial velocity, and displacement
Example #3:
A rock is dropped from a height of 20 m. What is its velocity
just before hitting the ground? (Take u = 0, a = 9.8 m/s²,
downward positive)
Solution:
Step 1: Known values
 Initial velocity, u = 0 (since it is dropped, not thrown)
 Acceleration, a=9.8 m/s2
 Displacement, s=20 m
 We need: Final velocity v
Step 2: Equation of motion (no time given)
V2 = u2 + 2as
Step 3: Substitute the values
v2=02+2(9.8)(20)
v2=392
v= √392
Step 4: Simplify
v≈19.8 m/s
Final Answer:
The velocity of the rock just before hitting the ground is 19.8
m/s downward.
(120) Motion Under Gravity
Introduction
Every time you drop a coin, toss a ball upward, or watch a
leaf fall, you’re seeing one of the most common forms of
motion in nature—motion under gravity.
Gravity gives all objects a constant downward acceleration,
whether they’re rising, falling, or thrown downward. This
acceleration is called the acceleration due to gravity, denoted
by g.
g=9.8 m/s2 (approximately 10 m/s² for simplicity in problems)
This means that for every second an object falls, its velocity
increases by about 9.8 m/s (if we neglect air resistance).
Kinematics and Gravity
The good news is: the kinematic equations of motion you
already know still apply here. The only difference is:
 Replace a with g.
 Choose a sign convention:
o If downward is positive, then a=+g
o If upward is negative, then a=−g.
This choice ensures that our equations describe the motion
correctly.

3) Three Common Cases of Motion Under Gravity

Let’s break motion under gravity into three main scenarios,
depending on how the object starts moving.

Case 1: Object Dropped from Rest

The object is simply released (not pushed), so it begins with

zero initial velocity. Gravity pulls it downward.
Key Parameters:
 Initial Velocity (u) = 0
 Acceleration (a) = +g (downward taken as positive)
How does it move?
 Starts at rest.
 Gains speed steadily as it falls.
 Displacement increases with time squared (s ∝ t2).
Example:
A stone dropped from the top of a building falls faster and
faster until it hits the ground.
Case 2: Object Thrown Upward

The object is given an initial velocity upward, but gravity

always pulls downward, opposing the motion.
Key Parameters:
 Initial Velocity (u>0) upward
 Acceleration (a = −g) (since upward is positive)
How does it move?
 The object slows down as it goes up.
 At the highest point, its velocity becomes zero.
 Then it reverses direction and falls back down, speeding
up again.
  The motion is symmetric: time going up = time coming
down.
Example:
A basketball tossed upward rises, pauses at its peak, and falls
back into your hand.

Case 3: Object Thrown Downward

+
Here, the object is given an initial push downward, in the
same direction as gravity.
Key Parameters:
 Initial Velocity (u > 0 ) downward
 Acceleration (a= +g) (same direction as motion)
How does it move?
 Since both velocity and acceleration are downward, the
object speeds up more quickly than if it were simply
dropped.
Example:
Throwing a dart straight down makes it move faster than a
free-falling object.

Example Problem
Problem #4:
A ball is dropped from a height of 45 m. How long does it
take to reach the ground?
(Take g=9.8 m/s2g = 9.8 \, m/s^2g=9.8m/s2)
Step 1: Known values
 Initial velocity, u=0 (since it is dropped)
 Displacement, s=45 m (downward)
 Acceleration, a=g=9.8 m/s2
 Unknown: Time (t)
Step 2: Equation of motion
s=ut+1/2 gt2
Since u=0:
s=1/2 gt2
Step 3: Substitute values
45=1/2 (9.8)t2
45=4.9t2
t2=45/4.9≈9.18
t≈3.03 s
Final Answer : The ball takes about 3.0 seconds to reach the
ground.

Summary:
 LU 1.5 - Projectile Motion (Things that
fly through the air)
Imagine throwing a ball into the air.
Once it leaves your hand, the only force acting on it is
gravity (we ignore air resistance here).
That’s what we call a projectile.

Key points:
1. The path is a curved parabola (like a rainbow
shape ).
2. The motion can be split into two parts:
o Horizontal motion (sideways) → always

constant speed.
o Vertical motion (up and down) → changes

because gravity pulls it down.

Breaking Velocity into Components

When you throw the ball at an angle (say 30° or 45°):
 Part of the velocity pushes it forward (horizontal).
 Part of the velocity pushes it upward (vertical).
We calculate:

 Horizontal velocity: uₓ = u × cosθ

  Vertical velocity: uᵧ = u × sinθ

Horizontal Motion
 No force acts sideways (ignoring air).
 Speed stays the same.
 Formula: x = uₓ × t
Example: A football kicked sideways will just keep
moving at the same speed (until gravity pulls it down).

Vertical Motion
 Gravity slows it when going up ⬆.
 Stops for a moment at the top.
 Falls back down ⬇, speeding up again.
 Formula: y = uᵧt − ½gt²
Other useful ones:

 Final vertical velocity: vᵧ = uᵧ − g×t

 Without time: vᵧ² = uᵧ² − 2gy

Important Formulas
 Time of flight (T): (How long it stays in the
air)
 T = (2u × sinθ) / g

 Maximum height (H): (How high it goes)

H = (u² × sin²θ) / (2g)

 Range (R): (How far it goes horizontally)

R = (u² × sin2θ) / g

Fun fact: Maximum range happens when θ = 45°.

Circular Motion (Things that go round

and round)
Examples:
 A ceiling fan blade.
 The Moon going around Earth.
 A car turning in a circle.
Key idea:
Even if the speed is constant, the direction keeps
changing → and that means the object is still
accelerating.
Linear vs Angular Quantities
Think of running around a circular track:
 Linear (straight-line view):
Distance (s), speed (v), acceleration (a).
 Angular (circular view):
Angle (θ), angular velocity (ω), angular
acceleration (α).
Formulas linking them:

 s=rθ
 v=rω
 a=rα
Centripetal Force & Acceleration
When an object moves in a circle:
 It wants to fly off straight (inertia).
 Something must pull it towards the center →
that’s centripetal force.
 Formula:
Centripetal acceleration: ac = v² / r

Centripetal force: Fc= m × ac = mv² / r

👉 Velocity is always tangent (points along the circle).
👉 Acceleration & force are always towards the center.
That’s why:
 A car turning needs friction (road provides inward
force).
 Planets orbit the Sun because gravity acts as
centripetal force.

Summary (Super Simple)

 Projectile Motion
o Curved path (parabola).

o Horizontal → constant speed.

o Vertical → accelerated by gravity.

o Formulas help us find time, height, and range.

 Circular Motion
 o Speed can be constant, but direction changes
→ so acceleration exists.
o Needs inward force (centripetal).
o Velocity = tangent, Acceleration = inward.
--------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------

Problem #1
A ball is thrown with an initial speed of 20 m/s at an
angle of 30° to the horizontal. Calculate:
 Time of flight (T)
 Maximum height (H)
 Range (R)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
Given:
Initial speed, u = 20 m/s
Angle of projection, θ = 30°
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s²
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
 Time of Flight (T)
Formula: T = (2u × sinθ) / g
Apply values:
= (2 × 20 × sin30°) / 9.8
= (40 × 0.5) / 9.8
= 20 / 9.8 ≈ 2.04 seconds
The ball remains in the air for approximately 2.04
seconds.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
 Maximum Height (H)
Formula: H = (u² × sin²θ) / (2g)
Apply values:
= (20² × sin²30°) / (2 × 9.8)
= (400 × 0.25) / 19.6
= 100 / 19.6 ≈ 5.1 meters
The ball reaches a maximum height of about 5.1 meters.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
 Range (R)
Formula: R = (u² × sin2θ) / g
Apply values:
 = (400 × sin60°) / 9.8
= (400 × 0.866) / 9.8
= 346.4 / 9.8 ≈ 35.3 meters
The horizontal range covered by the ball is
approximately 35.3 meters.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
 LU 1.6 - Work, Energy & Power
In this lesson, you’ll learn:

 How to understand and explain the Work-Energy Theorem with confidence?

 How to differentiate between kinetic and potential energy effortlessly?
 How to apply the conservation of mechanical energy to real-world scenarios like a pro?

1. What is Work?
Work is when energy is transferred from one object to another by a force that moves an object over a
distance. If an object doesn’t move, no work is done, even if a force is applied.

👉 Work is done when a force moves an object in the direction of the force.

Formula:
W= F × d × cos(θ)

 F = Force applied

 d = Distance moved

 θ = Angle between force & movement

👉 If the object does not move → No work is done (even if you’re tired).

Here is an example:

You apply a force of 10 N to push a box across the floor for a distance of 5 meters. What is the
work done?

When work is done, energy is transferred. For example, if you lift a box, the work you do is
transferred into the box as potential energy (because it can fall due to gravity).

Real-world Examples:

 Pushing a shopping cart: You apply a force, cart moves → work is done.

 Holding a heavy suitcase without moving: No work (distance = 0).

 2. What is Energy?
Energy is the ability to do work.

 Without energy → nothing moves or changes.

 Energy never disappears, it just changes form (Law of Conservation of Energy).

law of conservation of energy states:

"Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted from
one form to another."
For example, when you ride a bicycle, your muscles convert stored energy into movement.
The SI unit of energy is Joule (J), which helps measure how much energy is used or transferred.
Now, let’s explore the different types of energy
Energy exists in many forms, but all of them fall into two main categories:

 Kinetic Energy – The Energy of Motion

 Potential Energy – Stored Energy

3. Kinetic Energy (KE) – Energy of Motion

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Any object that is moving—whether it's a speeding car, a
flying bird, or even a rolling marble—possesses kinetic energy. The faster it moves or the more mass
it has, the greater its kinetic energy.
Formula:

KE = ½ m v 2

 m = mass of object

 v = speed

Here is an example problem:

A ball with a mass of 2 kg is rolling at a speed of 3 meters per second. What is its kinetic energy?
Real-world Examples:

 If the car goes faster, KE increases a lot (because speed is squared).

 That’s why accidents at high speed are more dangerous – the car has more energy
to release when it crashes

4. Potential Energy (PE) – Stored Energy

Formula:

PE=mgh

 m = mass

 g=9.8 m/s2

 h = height

Here is an example problem:

A 1.5 kg book is kept 2 meters above the ground.

PE = mgh = 1.5×9.8×2 = 29.4J

Real-world Examples:

 If the book falls, this stored energy changes into kinetic energy as it moves
downward. That’s why a book falling from a higher shelf hurts more—it has more
potential energy to release.

Energy Conversion: Transfer and Transformation

What does it mean?

 Energy Transfer → Energy moves from one object to another without

changing form.

 Energy Transformation → Energy changes from one form to another (like

potential → kinetic).
In real life, energy is always moving or changing forms. It never disappears (Law of
Conservation of Energy).

1. Energy Transfer (same form moves)

This happens when energy moves from one place/object to another, but does not
change type.

👉 Examples:

 Heat moving from hot tea to your hand (thermal energy transfer).

 A bat hitting a ball → kinetic energy is transferred from the bat to the ball.

 Speaker → transfers sound energy through air to your ears

2. Energy Transformation (changes form)

This happens when one type of energy converts into another.

👉 Examples:

Roller Coaster
 At the top of the hill → The coaster is very high. Because of its height, it has
a lot of stored energy (we call this potential energy).

 As it goes down → The stored energy starts turning into movement energy
(we call this kinetic energy). The coaster speeds up.

 While moving on tracks → Not all the energy stays as motion. Some energy
changes into heat (because of rubbing with the tracks) and sound (the noise
of the wheels).

 At the bottom → The coaster is moving the fastest. Now it has the most
kinetic energy and very little stored (potential) energy left.

👉 Total energy is conserved, but its form changes

 5. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
What does it mean?
Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy (motion) and potential energy
(stored position energy).

The law of conservation of mechanical energy says:

In a closed system (no friction, no air resistance), the total mechanical energy
stays the same. It can change form, but it never disappears

👉 Piggy Bank Example

 Imagine a sealed piggy bank.

 You can have coins (like kinetic energy ) or notes (like potential energy ).

 Sometimes you have more coins, sometimes more notes—but the total money
inside never changes (unless you add/remove).

Same with energy → sometimes more kinetic, sometimes more potential, but total stays
constant.

Total Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

E = KE + PE

In an ideal (frictionless) world:

E
initial =E
final

Which means

KE + PE = KE + PE
initial initial final final

Where

 KE initial and PE
initial are the initial kinetic and potential energies

 KE final and PE final are the final kinetic and potential energies

Conditions for Conservation

No External Forces → Imagine you have a box with a ball inside. If no one from outside the box
pushes, pulls, or interferes (except gravity if we’re counting it), then the system is closed. Nothing
from outside is adding or taking away energy.
Conservative Forces Only → These are "nice" forces that don’t waste energy.

 Gravity and spring forces are examples – they just swap energy between potential and kinetic,
but the total stays the same.

 Friction and air resistance are "energy thieves" – they turn some energy into heat or sound, so
you can’t get it all back. If these are present, total mechanical energy is not constant.

Real-world Examples:

 Roller Coaster : At the top → high PE, at bottom → high KE.

 Ball falling: PE converts to KE as it drops.

Here is an example,

A 0.5 kg ball is dropped from a height of 10 meters. Ignoring air resistance, what is its velocity
just before it hits the ground?

Solution

Step 1: At the Top (Before Dropping)

 The ball is at rest (not moving).

 That means:

o Kinetic Energy (KE) = 0 (no motion).

o Potential Energy (PE) = m×g×h

For our ball:

PE=0.5×9.8×10=49 J

So total energy = 49 J.
👉 Step 2: While Falling
 As the ball falls:

o It loses height → PE decreases.

o It gains speed → KE increases.

 But if you add KE + PE at any point → total is still 49 J.

Example: halfway down (5 m height):

PE=0.5×9.8×5=24.5 J

So KE must be:

49−24.5=24.5 J

Total = 49 J (unchanged).

Step 3: Just Before Hitting the Ground

 Now, the ball is at ground level → height = 0.

o PE = 0 (no height).

o All energy has become KE.

So:

KE=49 J

Step 4: Find Velocity from KE

Kinetic energy formula:

KE=½ mv2

Substitute:
 49 = 0.5 × 0.5 × v 2

49=0.25v 2

v =490.25=196
2

v=√196=14m/s

Answer: The ball hits the ground with a speed of 14 m/s.

6. Power – How Fast Work is Done

In our daily lives, we often describe things as ―powerful‖ — a powerful motorbike, a powerful
machine, or even a powerful speech. But in physics, power has a very specific and measurable
meaning. It tells us how fast work is done or how quickly energy is transferred.

In simple terms:
Power = How fast work is done

Formula:

P=W/t

 W = Work done (Joules)

 t = time (seconds)

Unit: Watt (W) → 1W=1J/s

Example: A person does 600 J of work in 10 seconds. What is the power?

Solution:
P=W/t
P=600/10
P=60W
👉 Answer: Power = 60 watts
 LU 1.8 - Momentum and Impulse
👉 Introduction
Have you ever watched a car crash in a movie or played a racing game where cars crumple
when they hit a wall?
That is not random animation – it’s based on real science. Behind every crash and every
movement you see, there’s a physics story.

As Computer Science engineers, you will work on games, simulations, animations, and even
robotics. To make them look and feel real, you need to understand how objects move,
collide, and react. That’s where momentum and impulse come in.

Let’s explore these concepts step by step with simple examples you can relate to.

👉 1. Momentum – How Hard Something is to Stop

Momentum is the quantity of motion an object has.
It depends on two things:

 Mass of the object (how heavy it is)

 Velocity (how fast it’s moving and in which direction)

Formula:

p=m×v
Where:

 p = momentum (a vector quantity)

 m = mass (kg)

 v = velocity (m/s)

Momentum is a vector, meaning it has both size (magnitude) and direction.

Real-Life Example:

Imagine stopping:
  A shopping cart (heavy)

 A toy car (light)

both moving at the same speed.
The shopping cart is harder to stop because it has more momentum.

Another comparison:

 Truck: 3000 kg × 2 m/s = 6000 kg·m/s

 Bicycle: 15 kg × 10 m/s = 150 kg·m/s

Even though the bike is faster, the truck has far more momentum. That’s why a moving truck
is much harder to stop or turn.

This means momentum has both magnitude and direction. So it’s not just about how
fast something is moving, but also where it’s going.

Another comparison:

 Truck: 3000 kg × 2 m/s = 6000 kg·m/s

 Bicycle: 15 kg × 10 m/s = 150 kg·m/s

Even though the bike is faster, the truck has far more momentum. That’s why a moving truck
is much harder to stop or turn.

👉 2. Impulse – How We Change Momentum

Impulse is what changes momentum. It is the effect of applying a force over a period of time.

Formula:

J=F×Δt

Where:

 J = impulse (vector)
  F = force applied (N)

 Δt = time force acts (s)

Impulse-Momentum Theorem:
Imagine pushing a stalled car. The longer you push (the time) and the harder you
push (the force), the more you change the car's motion (its momentum). This
relationship is described by the impulse-momentum theorem.
The impulse-momentum theorem is a principle that connects impulse to a change in
momentum.
It states:
J = Δp
This means:
The impulse acting on an object is equal to the change in its momentum.
So, impulse causes momentum to change. Whether you’re hitting, kicking, catching,
or crashing—any time an object changes its motion, the impulse-momentum
theorem explains how much and why that change happens.
From the impulse-momentum theorem, the formula can be derived as in the
following.
J = Δp [Since J= F * Δt(impulse) and Δp = m * Δv (Change in momentum)]

F * Δt = m * Δv

Where:

 m is the mass of the object

 Δv is the change in velocity of the object (final velocity - initial velocity)

Impulse = Change in Momentum.

Solved Problem
Let's say you kick a soccer ball with a force of 50 N. The ball is in contact with your
foot for 0.1 seconds. The mass of the ball is 0.45 kg. What is the change in velocity
of the soccer ball?

1. Calculate the impulse:

J = F * Δt
J = 50 N * 0.1 s

J = 5 Ns (Newton-seconds)

2. Apply the impulse-momentum theorem:

J = m * Δv

5 Ns = 0.45 kg * Δv

3. Solve for Δv:

Δv = 5 Ns / 0.45 kg

Δv = 11.11 m/s

So, the change in velocity of the soccer ball is 11.11 m/s in the direction of the force.

👉 3. Conservation of Momentum – Momentum Never

Disappears
The law of conservation of momentum states:
In a closed system (no external forces), total momentum remains constant.

Formula:
m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ = m₁v₁′ + m₂v₂′

Where:

 m₁ and m₂ are the masses of the two objects

 v₁ and v₂ are their initial velocities
 v₁′ and v₂′ are their final velocities after the collision

This law is especially useful for understanding collisions, explosions, and push-offs.
No matter how objects move or bounce, if no external force interferes, the total
momentum is preserved.
Let's watch a short video on the Law of conservation of momentum

When do we actually see this law in action?

One of the most common and practical scenarios is during collisions.
Whether it's cars crashing, balls bouncing, or skaters pushing off each other—
collisions are real-life situations where momentum is transferred or exchanged
between objects.

Real-Life Example:

Two skaters standing still on ice.

 Total momentum = 0 (both at rest)

When they push each other:

 Skater A moves left

 Skater B moves right

Momentum gained by one = momentum lost by the other → total remains 0.

👉 4. Types of Collisions
Collisions are situations where momentum is transferred between objects.

(a) Elastic Collision

 Momentum is conserved

 Kinetic energy is also conserved

 Objects bounce back with no loss of energy

Example: Two billiard balls hitting each other and bouncing off perfectly.

(b) Inelastic Collision

 Momentum is conserved
  Kinetic energy is not fully conserved (some lost as heat, sound, dents)

 Objects may bounce a little or get deformed

Example: Two cars crash and dent each other.

(c) Perfectly Inelastic Collision

 Momentum is conserved

 Maximum kinetic energy is lost

 Objects stick together and move as one

Example: Two lumps of clay collide and stick together.

Watch a video for better understanding

👉 5. Explosions
An explosion is a process where one object splits into two or more parts, often due to
a sudden release of energy. These parts then move away from each other in different
directions.

Example:

A toy bomb at rest on a smooth floor explodes into two equal parts.

 Before explosion: total momentum = 0

 After explosion: one part goes left, other goes right → their momenta cancel → total
still = 0.
 LU 1.9 - Gravitation
Learning Goals
By the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Explain gravity and state Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

 Use the formula to calculate gravitational force.

 Distinguish between gravitational force, weight, and gravitational potential energy

(GPE).

 State and apply Kepler’s three laws.

 Do simple experiments and solve problems.

Hook Question
Why does a table stay on the floor while a fan hangs from the ceiling?

 Both feel gravity pulling down.

 The floor pushes up on the table with a normal force.

 The ceiling support pulls up on the fan with tension.

 In both cases: downward gravity is balanced by an upward contact force.

What is Gravity?
 Gravity = attractive force between any two masses.
  Newton’s law of universal gravitation:

F = (G m1 m2) / r2

Where:

 F= force (N)
 G = gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/ kg2 )
 m1, m2 = masses of the two objects
 r = distance between centers (m)

Key ideas:

 Bigger mass → stronger force.

 Larger distance → weaker force (inverse-square law).

Worked Example: Earth–Moon Force

Given:

 Mass of Earth m1 = 6 x 1024

 Mass of Moon m2 = 7.3 x 1022
 Distance r = 3.84 x 108

Plug into the formula:

F = (G m1 m2) / r2

F = (6.674 x 10-11 x 6 x 1024 x 7.3 x 1022 ) / ( 3.84 x 108 )2 (please solve this)

Apple vs. Moon

 Apple falls straight down (no sideways speed).

 Moon also ―falls,‖ but has sideways speed → keeps missing Earth → orbits.
  Newton’s insight: falling apples and orbits follow the same law.

Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

Near Earth:
Formula :

U = mgh

Where:

 U = gravitational potential energy

 m = mass of the object (kg)
 g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
 h = height above ground (m)

Universal (large distances):

Formula :

U = - (G Mm) / r

 Negative because potential at infinity = 0.

 Closer objects have lower (more negative) energy.

Example : A rock of mass 5 kg is lifted to a height of 10 m. What is its gravitational

potential energy?

Step 1. Write formula

U=mgh

Step 2. Substitute values

U=5×9.8×10
Step 3. Multiply

5×9.8=49

49×10=490

Final Answer:

U=490 J

So the rock stores 490 J of gravitational potential energy relative to the ground.

TIPS TO REMEMBER:
The universal formula U = - (G Mm) / r is used when dealing with huge distances
(like Earth–Moon or satellite orbits). For small height changes near Earth, we
approximate with U=mgh.

Kepler’s Laws
1. Law of Orbits: Planets move in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.

2. Law of Areas: Planets move faster near the Sun, slower farther away.

3. Law of Periods: T2 ∝ R3 (Period squared is proportional to cube of orbit size).

Uses: Predict satellite paths, space missions.

Why are Kepler's Laws Important?

Kepler’s laws provided a precise description of planetary motion, which Newton later
used to develop his law of universal gravitation. These laws are fundamental to
understanding celestial mechanics and astrophysics!
Why Does Gravitational Acceleration Vary Across Earth?
Have you ever wondered if gravity is the same everywhere on Earth? Surprisingly,
it's not! The acceleration due to gravity varies slightly from place to place. Let's
explore why.

1. Earth's Shape
Earth is an oblate spheroid — wider at the equator and flattened at the
[Link] from Earth's center is greater at the equator than [Link] is
slightly weaker at the equator due to increased distance.

2. Earth's Rotation
Rotation creates a centrifugal force that opposes [Link] strongest at the
equator due to higher [Link] force reduces effective gravity at the
equator.

3. Altitude
Higher altitude increases distance from Earth's center, reducing [Link] is
small for typical altitude changes.

4. Density Variations
Earth’s crust has non-uniform density due to varied [Link] regions (e.g.,
mineral deposits) experience stronger gravity.