BEVH321: HEALTH RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES
LECTURE ONE: CONCEPTS / TERMS IN HEALTH RESEARCH METHODS
What is research?
1. To carry out diligent enquiry/critical examination on a phenomenon.
2. Critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories to newly discovered facts
3. A process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data.
Purpose of research
1. To discover new knowledge – facts correct interpretation and practical applications
2. To describe a phenomena e.g size, shape, weight, colour, height, change over time, etc
3. To enable prediction – ability to estimate a phenomena occurrence
4. To enable control. This implies the ability to regulate a phenomenon under study.
Manipulate exposure while observing the outcome
5. To enable explanation of a phenomena. This involves accurate observations and
measurements of a given phenomena
6. To enable theory development. Formulation of concepts, laws, and generalizations about
a given phenomenon. Research can also be used to validate (test) a theory (falsification of
theory)
Sources of Knowledge
1. Research - it is objective and has systematic procedures
2. Experience – common mode of obtaining knowledge
3. Tradition - from the cultures inherited, has systems of rules, norms, standards and values by
parents, peers, adults, teachers, clergy etc
4. Authority – expert in a specialized area giving his opinion on a given issue
5. Intuition – perception, explanation or insight into a phenomenon by instinct.
Applied Research – conducted to solve a problem
Basic Research - conducted with the aim of developing theories or theory guided
Reading Assignment – Theories/ Models/ Frameworks
Describe error in research
Basic Terms in Research
Population - entire group of individuals, events, objects having common observable
characteristics – universe
Give 3 examples of populations
1.
2.
3.
Target population – universe
Accessible Population /Study population - from where a sample is obtained
Give examples of Accessible/Study populations
1.
2.
3.
Sample – sub set from the study/accessible population that is representative. Each member or
case in the sample is referred to as a subject, respondent, interviewee, study participant
Examples of samples
200 std eight pupils from a particular district
Sampling
Process of selecting a number of individuals /objects for study in such a way that the individuals
selected represent the large group from which they were selected. Examples of sampling
techniques include simple random, systematic random sampling etc
Variable
A measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects. It is a logical
expression of an attribute in a subject. The attributes/variables are expressed quantitatively in
numbers such as weight (kgs), length (m). Other attributes /variables are expressed qualitatively
in categories such as teacher, farmer, nurse etc. Gender is expressed as male/female
Theoretical/conceptual definition of variables
- What is meant by a particular term
Operational definition of variables
- Refers to measurement of a variable
Data
Information a researcher gathers for study.
There are 2 types of data - primary data and secondary data
Data can also be classified as quantitative (numerical) or qualitatively (words)
Parameter
A characteristic that is measurable and can assume different values in a population. Parameter
refers to population characteristic e.g Kenyan per capita income, while variable refers to sample
characteristic.
Statistics
This is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data. The term statistics
also refers to indices which are derived from data through statistical procedures eg mean, mode,
standard deviation, correlation coefficients
Descriptive statistics – used to describe a given sample such as mean , mode SD, variance etc
Analytic/inferential statistics – used to generalize/replicate /make inferences from results in a
sample to population.
Objective
In research , it refers to aspects of phenomena under study that the researcher desires to bring
out at the end of the study.
Examples of objectives
1. To establish the SES of parents of malnourished children
Give more examples
Literature review - locating, reading and evaluating reports of previous studies, observations and
opinions related to planned study. Thus appreciating what has been done in the area of interest.
Problem statement – specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the research study. It
focuses on the phenomena that the researcher desires to describe, predict, control or explain.
Units of analysis – the individual units about which or whom descriptive or explanatory
statements are to be made. Examples are individuals, families, households etc.
Units of observation – This is the subject, object, item or entity from which we measure the
characteristic or obtain the data required in the study. Examples are individuals, a house, etc
Most of the time unit of observation are also the units of analysis, but sometimes this differs.
Hypothesis – this is prediction about a phenomena or results of a study.
Theory - A set of concepts or constructs and interrelations that are assumed to exist among those
concepts
LECTURE TWO: IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Step 1. Identify a broad area of interest that is related to your profession interests or goals of the
researcher. This could be nutrition, microbiology, housing, health education, community health
strategy, PHC, occupational health, pollution etc
Step 2. Identify a specific problem within the professional area of interest to form the basis of
your study. Focus from broad area to specific
Step 3. Consider the key factors that help in identifying a researchable problem that should be of
public health importance. This implies area that
- Leads to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area
- Challenges some community held truism
- Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views, or policies
- Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not narrow or too general
Factors that determine the scope of the study;
- Time available
- Funding sources
- Equipment needed
- Availability of the study participants/respondents/subjects
Ways of identifying specific research problems
- Testing Existing theories – can lead to validate or abolish the theory
- Existing literature – text books and published articles may give background information
about the subject area
- Discussion with experts - in class or seminars
- Previous research studies – recommendations for further studies
- Replications – to find out if the findings hold over time and across regions
- Media
- Personal experiences – first hand observations and reflections could help formulate a
research problem.
Stating/Writing the problem statement
A good problem statement has the following characteristics;
- It is written clearly to capture the reader’s attention immediately
- The specific problem identified is objectively researchable
- Scope of the specific problem is indicated
- Importance of research adding new knowledge is stated clearly
- The problem statement must give purpose of the study
Attributes of the Problem Statement
- Nature of the problem
- Magnitude of the problem
- Population affected by the problem
- Geographical location of the problem
- Any Interventions that have been used to address the problem
What has worked
What has not worked
- What your study proposes to (contribute to ) do in addressing the problem
Stating the purpose
The purpose crystallizes the researcher’s enquiry into a particular area of knowledge. In the
purpose, the researcher conveys the focus of the study in one or two sentences. The purpose
statement should
- be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner
- Indicate the concepts or variables in the study
- State the relationship between variables
- State the target population
- Variables and target population in the purpose should be consistent with the variables and
target population operationalized in the methods section of the study.
Examples of purpose statements that may appear in the problem statement;
1. The purpose of this study is to investigate the resource management skills of women in
small scale businesses in Kenya.
Words to use in expressing the purpose
1. To determine
2. To compare
3. To investigate
4. To differentiate
5. To explore
6. To find out
7. To examine
8. To enquire
9. To establish
10. To test
Words not use in expressing the purpose
1. To show
2. To prove
3. To confirm
4. To verify
5. To check
6. To demonstrate
7. To indicate
8. To validate
9. To explain
10. To illustrate
State 3 more examples of research purpose
Stating the objectives
Objectives help the researcher to keep to the scope of the study by defining the area of
knowledge the researcher is focusing on. It also guides the researcher to formulate testable
research hypotheses From the stated purpose, several objectives are derived,
The same phrases used in purpose are also used in the objectives. Avoid the biased phrases.
.
Examples of research objectives
1. To identify the socio – economic status of small scale business women in rural areas of
Kenya
2. ….
3. ….
4.
Sometime the objectives are expressed in question forms thus ‘research question’
For example
1. What is the socio-economic status of small scale business women in rural areas of
Kenya?
Formulating Hypothesis
Hypothesis is the researcher’s prediction of the outcome of the study.
Hypothesis states possible differences, relationships/associations/causes between two variables
or concepts. The test of hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either
support (accept) OR fail to support (reject) the hypothesis
Purposes of hypothesis
1. Provide direction – bridge the gap between the problem and the evidence for its solution
2. Ensure collection of evidence necessary to answer the question posed in the statement of
the problem
3. It enables the investigator to assess the information collected from the stand point of both
relevance and organization
4. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are relevant regarding
the problem at hand
5. It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity hence solution to
the problem
6. Guide the collection of data and provide structure for their meaningful interpretation
7. It forms the framework for ultimate conclusion as solutions.
Reading Assignment: Characteristics of a good hypothesis
Types of hypotheses
1. Null hypotheses aka statistical hypotheses
Ho : u1=u2
2. Alternative non directional hypotheses aka research hypothesis
H1: u1not =u2
3. Alternative directional hypotheses
H1 : u1>u2
Give examples of Ho, H1 directional and non-directional
Reading Assignment – Assumption and limitations.
LITERATURE REVIEW – Reading Assignment
Purpose of LR
Scope of LR
Steps in carrying out LR
Sources /types of literature
Tips on good LR
Referencing within the text
Footnotes
Quotations
Citing references and bibliography
Hypothesis testing
Methodology Section
Study Designs for Qualitative and Quantitative studies
Study Area
Study/Accessible/ Target Population
Samples
Sample size
Sampling designs/techniques
Probability/Non biased
- Simple random
- Systematic random
- Stratified random – consider the strata sizes, also consider the heterogeneity/variability of
the characteristic of interest
- Cluster sampling
Biased/Biased sampling
Purposive sampling
Snowballing
Quota
Convenient or accidental sampling
Sampling errors and sampling fluctuations
The standard normal/distribution curve
Skewness –positive /negative
Kurtosis
- Leptokurtic –high peak
- Platykurtic - flat
- Mesokurtic – normal peak
Classification of variables
- Independent
- Dependent
- Control variables – concomitant, covariate or blocking variables
- Uncontrolled variables –extraneous variable ie intervening, antecedent, suppressor and
distorter variable
- Exogenous and endogenous variable
Measurement Scales
Norminal scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval scale
Ratio Scale
Developing Research Instruments
- Questionnaire
- Kinds of questions in questionnaire
- Structured, semi structured an unstructured/open ended questionnaire
- Contigency/filter questions
- Matrix questions
Scales used in questionnaire
- Rating scales – Likert scale
- Rules for constructing questionnaire and questionnaire items
- Ordering items in the questionnaire
- Presentation of the questionnaire
- Pretesting
- Ways of administering questionnaire
o Self-administered questionnaire
o Research administered questionnaire
o Use of internet
- Letter of transmittal
- Follow up techniques
- Response rate/non response rate
- Interviews – advantages and disadvatages
- Rules pertaining to interviews
- Interview schedule
- Note taking during interviews
- Tape recording, advantages/disadvantages
- Communication during interviews
- Training of interviewers
- Probing questions during interviews
- Telephone interviews
- Standardized and non-standardized tests
- Observation forms, schedules /checklists