Human Anatomy and Physiology

Cells and Tissues

 Concepts of the Cell Theory
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
• The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells.
• According to the principle of complementarity, the biochemical activities of
cells are dictated by the relative number of their specific subcellular structures.
• Continuity of life has a cellular basis.

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 Cells and Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living things.
• Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function.

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 Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same.
• All cells share general structures.
Nucleus
• All cells have three main regions
• Nucleus Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm
• Plasma membrane Plasma
membrane

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 The Nucleus
• Control center of the cell
• Contains genetic material (DNA)
• Three regions
• Nuclear envelope (membrane)
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin

• Nucleoli
• Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome assembly
• Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores
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 The Nucleus
• Nuclear envelope (membrane)
• Barrier of the nucleus
• Consists of a double membrane
• Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the
cell
• Nucleoli
• Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome assembly
• Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores

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 The Nucleus
• Nucleoli
• Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome assembly
• Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores

• Chromatin
• Composed of DNA and protein
• Present when the cell is not dividing
• Scattered throughout the nucleus
• Condenses to form chromosomes when
the cell divides
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 Plasma Membrane
• Barrier for cell contents
• Double phospholipid layer
• Hydrophilic heads
• Hydrophobic tails
• Also contains proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins

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 Extracellular fluid Glycoprotein Glycolipid
(watery environment)
Cholesterol

Sugar
group
Polar heads of
phospholipid
molecules

Bimolecular
lipid layer
containing
proteins Channel
Nonpolar tails Proteins Filaments of
of phospholipid cytoskeleton
molecules Cytoplasm
(watery environment)

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 Plasma Membrane Junctions
• Membrane junctions
• Tight junctions
• Impermeable junctions
• Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
• Desmosomes
• Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled
apart
• Gap junctions
• Allow communication between cells

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 Cytoplasm
• The material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
• Site of most cellular activities
• Contains three major elements
• Cytosol
• Fluid that suspends other elements
• Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
• “Little organs” that perform functions for the cell
• Inclusions
• Chemical substances such as stored nutrients or cell products

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 Cytoplasmic Organelles

Figure 3.4
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 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Mitochondria
• “Powerhouses” of the cell
• Change shape continuously
• Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to
break down food
• Provides ATP for cellular energy
• Ribosomes
• Made of protein and RNA
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Found at two locations
• Free in the cytoplasm
• As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
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 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
• Two types of ER
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Studded with ribosomes
• Synthesizes proteins
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Functions in lipid metabolism and detoxification of
drugs and pesticides

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 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 3 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Transport 4 membranous sac called a transport
vesicle buds off vesicle.
4 The transport vesicle buds from the
rough ER and travels to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle

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 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
1

Protein

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 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).

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 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 3 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Transport membranous sac called a transport
vesicle buds off vesicle.

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 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 3 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Transport 4 membranous sac called a transport
vesicle buds off vesicle.
4 The transport vesicle buds from the
rough ER and travels to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle

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 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Golgi apparatus
• Modifies and packages proteins
• Produces different types of packages
• Secretory vesicles
• Cell membrane components
• Lysosomes

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 Rough ER Cisterna Proteins in cisterna

Membrane Lysosome fuses with

ingested substances
Transport
vesicle
Golgi vesicle containing
digestive enzymes
becomes a lysosome
Pathway 3

Pathway 2
Golgi Golgi vesicle containing
apparatus membrane components
Secretory vesicles
Pathway 1 fuses with the plasma
Proteins membrane
Golgi vesicle containing
proteins to be secreted Plasma membrane
becomes a secretory Secretion by
vesicle exocytosis Extracellular fluid

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 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Lysosomes
• Contain enzymes produced by ribosomes
• Packaged by the Golgi apparatus
• Digest worn-out or nonusable materials within the cell

• Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde
• Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
• Replicate by pinching in half

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 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Cytoskeleton
• Network of protein structures
that extend throughout the
cytoplasm
• Provides the cell with an
internal framework
• Three different types of
elements
• Microfilaments (largest)
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules (smallest)

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 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Centrioles
• Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules
• Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division
Cellular Projections
• Not found in all cells
• Cilia move materials across the cell surface
• Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
• Flagella propel the cell
• The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
• Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane
• Increase surface area for absorption

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 Solutions and Transport
• Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more components
• Solvent—dissolving medium; typically water in the body
• Solutes—components in smaller quantities within a solution
• Intracellular fluid—nucleoplasm and cytosol
• Interstitial fluid—fluid on the exterior of the cell

Selective Permeability
• The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others.
• This permeability influences movement both into and out of the cell.
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 Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport
• Membrane transport—movement of substances into and out of the cell
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable (some substances can pass
through but others cannot)
• Two basic methods of transport
• Passive processes
• No energy is required
• Active processes
• Cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP)

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 Passive Processes
• Diffusion
• Particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
• Movement is from high concentration to
low concentration, or down a
concentration gradient

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 Passive Processes
• Types of diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• An unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores
• Osmosis—simple diffusion of water
• Highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma membrane through aquaporins
• Facilitated diffusion
• Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport
• Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances
• Filtration
• Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
• A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high-pressure area to a lower pressure area

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 Active Processes
• Substances are transported that are unable to pass by diffusion
• Substances may be too large
• Substances may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
• Substances may have to move against a concentration gradient
• ATP is used for transport
• Two common forms of active transport
• Active transport (solute pumping)
• Vesicular transport
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis

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 Active Processes
• Active transport (solute pumping)
• Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are transported by protein carriers called solute
pumps
• ATP energizes protein carriers
• In most cases, substances are moved against concentration gradients

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 Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate

Na+ to the pump protein Na+ to the outside. restores the original
stimulates phosphorylation Extracellular K+ binds, conformation of the pump
by ATP, which causes the causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
pump protein to change its phosphate group. cytoplasm and Na+ sites are
shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

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 Extracellular fluid

Na+

Na+

ATP Na+
1

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic
Na+ to the pump protein
stimulates phosphorylation
by ATP, which causes the
pump protein to change its
shape.

Cytoplasm

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 Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P
ATP Na+
1 2

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels

Na+ to the pump protein Na+ to the outside.
stimulates phosphorylation Extracellular K+ binds,
by ATP, which causes the causing release of the
pump protein to change its phosphate group.
shape.

Cytoplasm

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 Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate

Na+ to the pump protein Na+ to the outside. restores the original
stimulates phosphorylation Extracellular K+ binds, conformation of the pump
by ATP, which causes the causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
pump protein to change its phosphate group. cytoplasm and Na+ sites are
shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

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 Active Processes
• Vesicular transport
• Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell
• Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
• Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
• Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
• Material is emptied to the outside

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 Active Processes
• Vesicular transport (continued)
• Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed
by being enclosed in a membranous
vescicle
• Types of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
• Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”

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 Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

3 Membranes and
receptors (if present)
Pit recycled to plasma
membrane

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 Extracellular
fluid Plasma
membrane

1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome
for digestion
Ingested
substance

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 Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

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 Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

3 Membranes and
receptors (if present)
Pit recycled to plasma
membrane

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 Extracellular Cytoplasm
fluid
Bacterium
or other
particle

Pseudopod

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 Membrane
receptor

(c)
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 Body Tissues
• Tissues
• Groups of cells with similar structure and function
TYPES OF TISSUES

Epithelium Connective Muscular Nervous

lining and covering support movement control

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 Epithelium Characteristics
• Cells fit closely together and often form sheets
• The apical surface is the free surface of the tissue
• The lower surface of the epithelium rests on a basement membrane
• Avascular (no blood supply)
• Regenerate easily if well nourished

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 Epithelial Tissues
• Locations
• Body coverings
• Body linings
• Glandular tissue
• Functions
• Protection
• Absorption
• Filtration
• Secretion

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 NAMING EPITHELIUM

Cell Shape Number of Layer

Squamous Basal Columnar Simple Stratified

• Naming the epithelia includes both the layers and the shape of the cells
• The name may also include any accessory structures
• Special epithelial tissues (don’t follow naming convention)

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 Simple Epithelia
• Simple squamous
• Single layer of flat cells
• Location - usually forms
membranes
• Lines body cavities
• Lines lungs and capillaries
• Functions in diffusion, filtration, or
secretion in membranes

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 Simple Epithelia
• Simple cuboidal
• Single layer of cube-like cells
• Locations
• Common in glands and their ducts
• Forms walls of kidney tubules
• Covers the ovaries
• Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
types propel mucus or reproductive cells

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 Simple Epithelia
• Simple columnar
• Single layer of tall cells
• Often includes mucus-
producing goblet cells
• Location - lines digestive
tract
• Functions in secretion and
absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or
reproductive cells

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 Simple Epithelia
• Pseudostratified columnar
• Single layer, but some cells are shorter
than others
• Often looks like a double layer of cells
but all cells rest on the basement
membrane
• Location - respiratory tract, where it is
ciliated
• Functions in absorption or secretion

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 Stratified Epithelia
• Stratified squamous
• Cells at the apical surface are
flattened
• Functions as a protective
covering where friction is
common
• Locations - lining of the:
• Skin
• Mouth
• Esophagus

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 Stratified Epithelia
• Stratified cuboidal—two layers of cuboidal cells; functions in protection
• Stratified columnar—surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size
and shape; functions in protection
• Stratified cuboidal and columnar
• Rare in human body
• Found mainly in ducts of large glands

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 Stratified Epithelia
• Transitional epithelium
• Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium
• Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
• Functions in stretching and the ability to return to normal shape
• Location - lines organs of the urinary system

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 Basement
membrane
Transi-
tional
epithelium
Transitional
Basement epithelium
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining of

the bladder, relaxed state (215×); surface rounded
cells flatten and elongate when the bladder fills
(f) Diagram: Transitional with urine.

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 Glandular Epithelium
• Gland
• One or more cells responsible for secreting a particular product
• Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous (water-based) fluid
• Two major gland types
• Endocrine gland
• Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood vessels
• All secretions are hormones
• Exocrine gland
• Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
• Include sweat and oil glands

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Human Anatomy and Physiology
Tissues (continuation)
 Connective Tissue
• Found everywhere in the body
• Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
• Functions
• Binds body tissues together
• Supports the body
• Provides protection

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 Connective Tissue Characteristics
• Variations in blood supply
• Some tissue types are well vascularized
• Some have a poor blood supply or are avascular
• Extracellular matrix
• Non-living material that surrounds living cells

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 Extracellular Matrix
• Two main elements
• Ground substance—mostly water along with adhesion proteins and
polysaccharide molecules
• Fibers
• Produced by the cells
• Three types
• Collagen (white) fibers
• Elastic (yellow) fibers
• Reticular fibers

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 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Proper Supporting Fluid

Loose Dense Bone Cartilage Blood

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)
• Main matrix element is collagen fiber
• Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
• Locations
• Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
• Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints
• Dermis—lower layers of the skin

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 Ligament
Tendon Collagen
fibers

Collagen
fibers Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Nuclei of
fibroblasts

(d) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective tissue

from a tendon (500×).

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue types
• Areolar tissue
• Most widely distributed connective tissue
• Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
• Functions as a packing tissue
• Contains all fiber types
• Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)

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 Mucosa
epithelium
Lamina Elastic
propria fibers

Collagen
fibers

Fibers of Fibroblast
matrix nuclei

Nuclei of
fibroblasts

(e) Diagram: Areolar Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a

soft packaging tissue of the body (300×).

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue types
• Adipose tissue
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules predominate
• Many cells contain large lipid deposits
• Functions
• Insulates the body
• Protects some organs
• Serves as a site of fuel storage

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 Nuclei of
fat cells

Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet

(f) Diagram: Adipose Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the

subcutaneous layer beneath the skin (430×).

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue types
• Reticular connective tissue
• Delicate network of interwoven fibers
• Locations
• Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of lymphoid organs
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Bone marrow

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 Spleen

White blood cell

(lymphocyte)
Reticular
cell Reticular fibers
Blood
cell
Reticular
fibers

(g) Diagram: Reticular Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network

of reticular connective tissue (430×).

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Blood (vascular tissue)
• Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix called blood plasma
• Fibers are visible during clotting
• Functions as the transport vehicle for materials

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Bone (osseous tissue)
• Composed of
• Bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
• Hard matrix of calcium salts
• Large numbers of collagen fibers
• Functions to protect and support the body

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Hyaline cartilage
• Most common type of cartilage
• Composed of
• Abundant collagen fibers
• Rubbery matrix
• Locations
• Larynx
• Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
• Functions as a more flexible skeletal element
than bone

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 Connective Tissue Types
• Elastic cartilage
• Provides elasticity
• Location
• Supports the external ear
• Fibrocartilage
• Highly compressible
• Location
• Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae

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 Chondrocytes
in lacunae

Chondro-
cites in
lacunae Collagen fiber
Collagen
fibers

(c) Diagram: Fibrocartilage Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an

intervertebral disc (110×).

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 Blood cells
in capillary

Neutrophil
(white blood
cell)

White Red blood

blood cell cells

Monocyte
Red (white blood
blood cells cell)
(h) Diagram: Blood Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1300×)

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 Muscle Tissue
• Function is to produce movement
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

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 Muscle Tissue Types
• Skeletal muscle
• Under voluntary control
• Contracts to pull on bones or skin
• Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions
• Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
• Striated
• Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
• Long, cylindrical cells

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 Muscle Tissue Types
• Cardiac muscle
• Under involuntary control
• Found only in the heart
• Function is to pump blood
• Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
• Striated
• One nucleus per cell
• Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle
cells at intercalated disks

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 Muscle Tissue Types
• Smooth muscle
• Under involuntary muscle
• Found in walls of hollow organs such
as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
• Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
• No visible striations
• One nucleus per cell
• Spindle-shaped cells

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 Nervous Tissue
• Composed of neurons and nerve
support cells
• Function is to send impulses to other
areas of the body
• Irritability
• Conductivity
• Support cells called neuroglia insulate,
protect, and support neurons

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 Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue is specialized to conduct action potentials (electrical signals)
• Function
• perception, processing, transmission
Divisions of Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord Cranial and spinal nerves

Autonomic Somatic

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 Nervous Tissue: Cells

Cells of the Nervous System

Neurons Neuroglia

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 Neurons
• basic unit the nervous system
• carries information throughout the human body
• electrical signals
• chemical signals
• helps coordinate all of the necessary functions of life

Parts of Neurons

Soma Dendrites Axon

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 • perikaryon • thin filaments carry information from other
• receives information neurons to the soma.
• contains the cell’s nucleus. • the “input” part of the cell.
• has Nissl bodies,
neurofibrils
• long projection
• carries information from the soma and sends
it off to other cells
• the “output” part of the cell
• ends with a number of synapses connecting
to the dendrites of other neurons.

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 Neuron Classification

Ways to classify Neurons

Connection Structure Function

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 Neuron Classification: according to Structure
Neurons according to Structure

Unipolar Bipolar Multipolar Psuedounipolar

retina of the eye, ganglia of mostly found in the sensory brain, spinal cord (CNS), and big players in transmitting
the vestibulocochlear nerve pathways for smell, taste, autonomic ganglia the sense of pain, pressure,
hearing, and sight or even touch.

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 Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
• Regeneration
• Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
• Fibrosis
• Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar tissue)
• Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
• Type of tissue damaged
• Severity of the injury

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 Events in Tissue Repair
• Inflammation
• Capillaries become very permeable
• Clotting proteins migrate into the area from the blood stream
• A clot walls off the injured area
• Granulation tissue forms
• Growth of new capillaries
• Rebuild collagen fibers
• Regeneration of surface epithelium
• Scab detaches

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 Regeneration of Tissues
• Tissues that regenerate easily
• Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
• Fibrous connective tissues and bone
• Tissues that regenerate poorly
• Skeletal muscle
• Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
• Cardiac muscle
• Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord

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 Developmental Aspects of Tissue
• Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary germ layers
• Muscle and connective tissue arise from the mesoderm
• Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
• With old age, there is a decrease in mass and viability in most tissues

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