Foundations 2017

What is Foundation in Construction? Purpose and the

Functions of Foundations

What is a Foundation in Construction?

Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact with
the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. Generally, the foundation
can be classified into two, namely shallow foundation and deep foundation.
A shallow foundation transfers the load to a stratum present in a shallow depth. The deep
foundation transfers the load to a deeper depth below the ground surface.

A tall building like a skyscraper or a building constructed on very weak soil requires deep
foundation. If the constructed building has the plan to extend vertically in future, then a deep
foundation must be suggested.

[Link] Foundation in Construction

JP
1
 Foundations 2017

To construct a foundation, trenches are dig deeper into the soil till a hard stratum is reached.
To get stronger base foundation concrete is poured into this trench. These trenches are
incorporated with reinforcement cage to increase the strength of the foundation.

The projected steel rods that are projected outwards act as the bones and must be connected
with the substructure above. Once the foundation has been packed correctly the construction
of the building can be started.

The construction of the foundation can be done with concrete, steel, stones, bricks etc. The
material and the type of foundation selected for the desired structure depends on the design
loads and the type of underlying soil.

The design of the foundation must incorporate different effects of construction on the
environment. For example, the digging and piling works done for deep foundation may result in
adverse disturbance to the nearby soil and structural foundation. These can sometimes cause
the settlement issues of the nearby structure.

Such effects have to be studied and taken care before undergoing such operations. Disposal of
the waste material from the operations must be disposed properly. The construction of
foundation has to be done to resist the external attack of harmful substances.

The foundation for each structure is designed such that:

o The underlying soil below the foundation structure does not undergo shear failure
o The settlement caused during the first service load or have to be within the limit
o Allowable bearing pressure can be defined as the pressure the soil can withstand without failure.

What is the Purpose of Foundation?

Foundations are provided for all load carrying structure for following purposes:

o Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the foundation,
more stable is the structure.
o The proper design and construction of foundations provide a proper surface for the development of the
substructure in a proper level and over a firm bed.
o Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting material.

JP
2
 Foundations 2017

o A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This uniform transfer helps
in avoiding unequal settlement of the building. Differential settlement is an undesirable building effect.
o The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure over a large
base area and then to the soil underneath. This load transferred to the soil should be within the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil.

Functions of Foundation in Construction

Based on the purposes of foundation in construction, the main functions of the foundation can
be enlisted as below:

1. Provide overall lateral stability for the structure

2. Foundation serve the function of providing a level surface for the construction of substructure
3. Load Distribution is carried out evenly
4. The load intensity is reduced to be within the safe bearing capacity of the soil
5. The soil movement effect is resisted and prevented
6. Scouring and the undermining issues are solved by the construction of foundation

Requirements of a Good Foundation

The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess some basic
requirements that must not be ignored. They are:

1. The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as well as transmit the
dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be carried out without resulting in any form
of settlement that can result in any form of stability issues for the structure.
2. Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation. These issues are more
pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not uniform in nature.
3. Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it can guard any form
of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the problem of shrinkage and swelling because of
temperature changes.
4. The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or influenced by future works
or factors.

JP
3
 Foundations 2017

Types of Foundations for Buildings and their Uses in

Construction

There are different types of foundation for building construction and their uses depends on soil
condition and loads from the structure. It is advisable to know suitability of each types of
foundation before making any decision for their selection in any construction project.

Types of Foundation and their Uses:

1. Spread footings and wall footings:
Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall
foundations. This is used in case of buildings. The wider base of this footing type spreads the
weight from the building structure over more area and provides better stability.

Fig: Spread Footing

Spread footings and wall footings are generally used for individual columns. walls and bridge
piers. These footings are used where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the
ground surface. The soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the
structure over the base area of the structure.

These foundations should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of
water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

2. Mat Foundations:
Mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the
building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.
JP
4
 Foundations 2017

Fig: Mat Foundation

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the
structure on columns and walls are very high. This type of foundation is used to prevent
differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined
footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.

This type of foundation is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for
suitability of spread footings and wall footings. This type of footing is economical generally
when one-half area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings is
provided.

These foundations should not be used where the ground water table is above the bearing
surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction.

3. Pile Foundations:
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the
structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.

JP
5
 Foundations 2017

Fig: Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil
strata which is much below ground level and where shallow foundations such as spread
footings and mat footings cannot be used. This type of foundation is also used to prevent uplift
of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface is
not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150
feet) deep from the ground surface.

The pile foundations resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing. Use of
pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

4. Drilled Shafts:
Drilled shafts is also a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile foundations
discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It is also called as caissons. It
resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of
both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

JP
6
 Foundations 2017

Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward Baker)

This foundation can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where depth
of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose,
water-bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are
difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil
strata which is much below ground level and where shallow foundations such as spread
footings and mat footings cannot be used. This type of foundation is also used to prevent uplift
of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface is
not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150
feet) deep from the ground surface.

JP
7
 Foundations 2017

The pile foundations resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing. Use of
pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

4. Drilled Shafts:
Drilled shafts is also a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile foundations
discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It is also called as caissons. It
resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of
both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward Baker)

This foundation can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where depth
of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose,
water-bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are
difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.

JP
8
 Foundations 2017

What are different Types of Shallow Foundations?

The different types of shallow foundation are:
o Strip footing
o Spread or isolated footing
o Combined footing Strap or cantilever footing
o Mat or raft Foundation.

1. Strip Footing:
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided for a row of
columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each
other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number
of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

2. Spread or Isolated Footing:

A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual column. A
spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is
stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

JP
9
 Foundations 2017

3. Combined Footing:
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to
each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided
when the property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically
loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in
plan.

JP
10
 Foundations 2017

4. Strap or Cantilever footing:

A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap
or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is
designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of
action passes through the resultant of the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a
combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between
the columns is large.

5. Mat or Raft Foundations:

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the
entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would
overlap or nearly touch each other.

Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils
or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.

JP
11
 Foundations 2017

Types of Deep Foundations used in Construction and

Their Uses

Deep foundation is required to carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soils or
fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth, or for functional reasons.

Deep foundations are founded too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base
bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below
finished ground level.

Deep foundation can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at
depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Types of Deep Foundation

The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:

1. Basements
2. Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)
3. Caissons
4. Cylinders
5. Shaft foundations
6. Pile foundations

Basement foundation:
These are hollow substructures designed to provide working or storage space below ground
level. The structural design is governed by their functional requirements rather than from
considerations of the most efficient method of resisting external earth and hydrostatic
pressures. They are constructed in place in open excavations.

Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)

Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures designed to provide a buoyant or semi-buoyant
substructure beneath which the net loading on the soil is reduced to the desired low intensity.

JP
12
 Foundations 2017

Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as caissons, they can also be constructed in place in
open excavations.

Caissons foundations:
Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the surface and then
sunk as a single unit to their required level.

Cylinders:
Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.

Drilled Shaft foundations:

Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported by lining constructed in
place and subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-fabricated load-bearing units.

JP
13
 Foundations 2017

Pile foundations:

Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by driving preformed
units to the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to the required depth – the
tubes being filled with concrete before or during withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or
partly lined boreholes which are then filled with concrete.

JP
14
 Foundations 2017

TYPES OF PILES BASED ON CONSTRUCTION METHOD

There are three types of pile foundations according to their construction methods:

1. Driven piles,

2. Cast-in-situ piles, and

3. Driven and cast-in-situ piles.

Driven Pile Foundations:

Driven pile foundations can be made from concrete, steel or timber. These piles are
prefabricated before placing at the construction site. When driven piles are made of concrete,
they are precast. These piles are driven using a pile hammer.

JP
15
 Foundations 2017

When these piles are driven into the granular soils, they displace the equal volume of soil. This
helps in compaction of soil around the sides of piles and results in the densification of soil. The
piles which compact the soil adjacent to it is also called as compaction pile. This compaction of
soil increases its bearing capacity.

Saturated silty soils and cohesive soils have poor drainage capability. Thus these soils are not
compacted when driven piles are drilled through it. The water have to be drained for the soil to
be compacted. Thus stresses are developed adjacent to the piles have to be borne by pore
water only. This results in increase in pore water pressure and decrease in bearing capacity of
the soil.

Cast-in-situ Pile Foundations:

Cast-in-situ piles are concrete pile. These piles are constructed by drilling holes in the ground to
the required depth and then filling the hole with concrete. Reinforcements are also used in the
concrete as per the requirements. These piles are of small diameter compared to drilled piers.

Cast-in-situ piles are straight bored piles or with one or more bulbs at intervals are casted. The
piles with one or more bulbs are called as under-reamed piles.

Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles

Driven and cast-in-situ piles have the advantages of both driven and cast-in-situ piles. The
procedure of installing a driven and cast-in-situ pile is as follows:
JP
16
 Foundations 2017

A steel shell of diameter of pile is driven into the ground with the aid of a mandrel inserted into
the shell. After driving the shell, the mandrel is removed and concrete is poured in the shell.

The shell is made of corrugated and reinforced thin sheet steel (mono-tube piles) or pipes
(Armco welded pipes or common seamless pipes). The piles of this type are called a shell type
piles.

The shell-less type is formed by withdrawing the shell while the concrete is being placed. In
both the types of piles the bottom of the shell is closed with a conical tip which can be
separated from the shell. By driving the concrete out of the shell an enlarged bulb may be
formed in both the types of piles. Franki piles are of this type. In some cases the shell will be left
in place and the tube is concreted. This type of pile is very much used in piling over water.

DRIVEN PRECAST CONCRETE PILES

Driven precast concrete piles are constructed by hammering the pile into the ground by pile
driving plant. Piles of timber, prestressed concrete and steel are also used in this method. The
piles are cast into any suitable cross-section such as square, hexagonal, rectangular or circular.

JP
17
 Foundations 2017

Fig.: Simple Pile Driving Rig

Driven piles are classified as displacement piles, and where the soil can enter during driving as
small displacement piles.

Fig: Driven Precast Concrete Piles

Methods of protecting the head of the pile from shattering must be decided before
commencing the driving process. This can be determined from the end bearing requirements
and driving conditions.

JP
18
 Foundations 2017

Fig.: Protecting pile head damage during driving

Disadvantage of Driven Precast Concrete Piles Method:
o Damage may occur in the pile at a position not visible from the surface during driving process.
o Pile may get laterally displaced if it encounters any obstructions like rocks in the ground.
o The length of pile is estimated before driving commences, but the accuracy of this assumption is only
known on site, where short piles can be difficult to extend and long piles may prove to be expensive and
wasteful.
o A large rig is required for driving piles and hard-standings are required to ensure that the ground surface
is adequate for the pile-driving.

BORED CAST IN SITU CONCRETE PILES

The construction of bored cast in situ concrete piles are formed by drilling and auguring and
then reinforcement is placed and concrete is poured into the hole

For bored cast in-situ piles foundation in stiff clays, the toe of the hole can be enlarged by
under-reaming to provide greater end bearing capacity for the piles.

Once the pile shaft has been formed, reinforcement is placed and concrete poured into the
hole. To combat difficulties caused by groundwater during piling, the hole can be lined with a
casing which is driven ahead of the bore.

JP
19
 Foundations 2017

Fig.: Simple Percussion Rig

The method of boring of cast in-situ piles tends to be restricted to clayey soils, and like the
driven cast-in-situ pile, care must be exercised to prevent necking of the concrete.

Bored piles can be installed in very long lengths and be of large diameter. The on-situ cost of
boring is relatively small in comparison to driven piles, thereby offering a more economic piling
opportunity for smaller sites.

Bored piles are not economic in granular soils where loosening and disturbance of surrounding
ground can cause excessive removal of soil and induce settlement in the surrounding area.

JP
20
 Foundations 2017

DRIVEN CAST IN-SITU CONCRETE PILES CONSTRUCTION

PROCESS

Driven cast in-situ concrete piles are constructed by driving a closed-ended hollow steel or
concrete casing into the ground and then filling it with concrete. The casing may be left in
position to form part of the pile, or withdrawn for reuse as the concrete is placed. The details of
driven cast in-situ piles are shown in figure below.

JP
21
 Foundations 2017

Fig.: Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles Details

The concrete is then rammed into position by a hammer as the casing is withdrawn ensuring
firm contact with the soil and the compaction of concrete. Care must be taken to see that the
concrete is not over-rammed or the casing withdrawn too quickly.

There is a danger that as the liner tube is withdrawn it will lift the upper portion of the in-situ
concrete, thus leaving a void or necking in the upper portion of the pile. This can be avoided by
good quality control of the concrete and slow withdrawal of the casing.

Driven cast in-situ concrete piles can prove to be economic for sand, loose gravels, soft silts and
clays, particularly when large numbers of piles are required. For small numbers of piles the on-
site costs can prove expensive.

Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles Construction Process

The process of construction of driven cast in-situ concrete piles are shown in figures below:

1. Permanent pile casing first made ready for driving

JP
22
 Foundations 2017

2. Pile casing is then driven into the soil

Fig.: Driving of Pile Casing

3. Reinforcement cage is then lowered into the pile core

JP
23
 Foundations 2017

Fig.: Reinforcement Cage placement in pile core

4. Then the concrete is poured in the pile core to complete the construction of driven cast in-
situ piles.

JP
24
 Foundations 2017

Fig.: Concreting of Driven Cast In-Situ Pile

Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles – Types, Uses and

Advantages

JP
25
 Foundations 2017

Cased piles consist a shell around it and these piles when casted in site are called cased cast-in-
situ concrete piles. Types and advantages of these piles are discussed.

In case of cased cast in situ piles, the shell is usually made of steel. This type of piles is suitable
for any types of soils.

Advantages of Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles

Main advantages of cased cast in situ piles are as follows.

1. The shell has driving resistance so, it can be easily driven.

2. Concrete filling is not disturbed.
3. Internal inspection can be done after driving shell.
4. Piles can be easily cut or extended in case of cased piles.

Types of Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles and Uses

Different types of cased cast in situ concrete piles are:

o Raymond piles

JP
26
 Foundations 2017

o Mac-Arthur piles
o Union metal monotube pile
o Swage pile
o Western button bottom pile

Raymond Piles
Raymond piles are economical piles of cast in situ piles which are developed by A.A. Raymond
in 1897. There are two types of Raymond piles are available, namely

o Standard Raymond pile

o Step taper Raymond pile

Standard Raymond Pile

Standard Raymond pile is used as friction pile because of its heavy taper of 1 in 30. Diameter of
Raymond pile gradually decreases from top to bottom. At the top 40 to 60 cm and at the
bottom it varies from 20 to 30 cm. The length of Raymond piles varies between 6 to 12 meters.

The Raymond pile contains corrugated steel shell which is closed at the bottom and is
reinforced with wire. Wire is wounded spirally around the shell with 8 cm pitch.

The shell is driven into the ground by placing core or mandrel in it. After reaching required
depth, mandrel part is removed and is filled with concrete.

Step Taper Raymond Pile

In this case of step taper Raymond pile, the pile consists series of shells, which are placed one
above the other. But each shell is of different size, i.e. shell size is gradually increased from
bottom to top.

To ease driving, bottom shell should be made of heavier gauge and closed at bottom. Then next
shell section is placed on it. The connection between steel shells are done by the screw
connections.

Usually 2.5 cm increase in diameter is provided for shells with respect to their bottom one.
Also, steel mandrel or core is used to driven the shell sections. Step taper random piles can be
driven up to 36 m of depth.

JP
27
 Foundations 2017

This type of pile can be useful as friction pile as well as end bearing pile. The advantage
compared to standard random pile is that it can be inspected easily, fresh concrete can be filled
and length flexibility.

Mac Arthur Piles

Mac Arthur piles generally in uniform diameter and shell is made of corrugated steel. But
driving is done by the combination of steel casing of heavy gauge consisting core

After driven to require depth, the core is removed and corrugated steel shell is inserted in
heavy gauge steel casing. Then, concrete is filled in the corrugated steel shell and outer hard
casing is removed.

JP
28
 Foundations 2017

Union Metal Monotube Pile

Union metal monotube piles consists only shell without any mandrel. The shell is made of steel
and is tapered fluted.

These types of piles are well suitable for most of the soil conditions that is from end bearing to
friction load carrying soils.

The shell is more rigid and watertight and this shell can be driven to larger depth using
hammer. After driving, inspection is done and then concrete is filled in the shell.

JP
29
 Foundations 2017

Swage Pile
Swage piles are widely used in case of hard soils. Pre-cast concrete plug is attached at bottom
of shell to drive the pile shell. Steel core is inserted in shell and driven and then shell is swaged
out by the taper of the plug and form water tight joint.

Next the whole arrangement is driven into the ground to a required depth. After reaching
desired depth, core is taken out and the pipe or shell is filled with concrete.

JP
30
 Foundations 2017

Western Button Bottom Pile

Western button bottom piles are widely used in end bearing soils. The pile consists a concrete
button at the bottom which helps the pile to drive into ground.

This concrete button is wider (about 25 mm diameter) and sharp at bottom so, it makes wider
hole and eliminates side friction.

JP
31
 Foundations 2017

Initially the steel pipe with 12mm thick wall is placed on concrete button and this combination
is driven into the ground. After reaching desirable depth, corrugated steel shell is placed in the
steel pipe. This shell consists steel plate welded at bottom and this plate is attached to concrete
button using long socket wrench.

Finally, the casing is removed and concrete is filled in the shell. This type of piles can be used up
to 23m and for loads up to 50 tons.

JP
32
 Foundations 2017

Uncased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles – Types and Uses

Uncased cast in situ piles are used where the ground does not disturb the pile hole with soil or
water falling in it. They are cheaper than the cased piles but not as much as efficient than cased
piles.

Skilled workers are required to install uncased cast in situ piles. The main disadvantage with
these piles is no inspection is possible after the installation. The advantages are storage space is
not required and special equipment is not needed.

Types of Uncased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles

Following are the different types of uncased cast-in-situ concrete piles and their uses:

o Simplex pile
o Frankie pile
JP
33
 Foundations 2017

o Vibro pile
o Pedestal pile

Simplex Pile
Simplex pile is useful for both soft and hard soils. To obtain simplex pile, a steel tube with cast
iron shoe is driven into the ground up to desired depth. After that, reinforcement is provided in
the tube and then filled it with concrete.

Then, the tube is slowly removed and cast-iron shoe is left at the bottom. So, for each pile new
cast iron shoe should be attached. To overcome this, cast iron shoe with alligator jaw point is
provided. Due to this jaw point, the shoe can be removed along with tube. The soil must be
able to hold fresh concrete after removing tube.

JP
34
 Foundations 2017

Frankie Pile
Frankie pile is suitable for granular type of soils and for soils bearing stratum of limited
thickness is located at reasonable depth. This type of pile has mushroom shape bottom which
acts like spread footing.

To construct a Frankie pile, initially a pipe shell consisting concrete or gravel at bottom is placed
on the ground with the help of leads.

Next, a drop hammer of 20 to 30 kN weight is dropped using diesel machines on the concrete
bottom. Then the whole arrangement is driven into the ground.

After reaching hard strata, the concrete bottom expands and gains mushroom like shape due to
hammer blows. After that, some proportion of concrete is placed in the tube and ramming is
done with hammer.

Similarly, ramming is done for every 300-mm layer up to the top. If reinforcement is to be
provided, then the hammer goes inside the reinforcement cage. Frankie piles can carry up to
900kN.

Vibro Pile
Vibro piles are suitable for soft soils which offers some amount of frictional resistance. Two
different vibro piles are:

JP
35
 Foundations 2017

o Standard vibro pile

o Expanded vibro pile

Standard Vibro Pile

Standard vibro pile contains same diameter all over the length. To install this, a steel tube
attached with cast iron shoe is taken and driven into the ground. The driving is done by
mechanical hammer of 2o to 25 kN weight. It blows from a stroke of 1.4 m height at a rate of 40
blows per minute.

After reaching required depth, the tube and hammer are attached to extracting links. Concrete
is poured into the tube from top and ramming is done by hammer at a rate of 80 blows per
minute.

While the concrete is filling, the tube moves upwards. The cast iron shoe remains at bottom of
the pile in this case. Vibro piles can be installed in 35, 45 and 50 cm diameters up to a length of
25 meters and for loads of 600 to 700 kN.

Expanded Vibro Pile

Expanded vibro piles are used when the depth of driving is limited or less than the required
depth. In this case, the bearing capacity of soil can be increased by expanding the diameter of
vibro pile.

A steel tube fitted with cast iron shoe is driven into the ground. After reaching depth, the tube
is filled with concrete up to some depth and tube is completely removed.

Now flat shoe is attached to the bottom of tube and inserted in pile hole. This flat shoe makes
contact with concrete and pushes it hardly. The concrete will be compressed and bulged or
expanded like bulb shape.

The tube with flat show penetrates concrete and forms deep hole in which reinforcement cage
is inserted and finally this whole arrangement is filled with concrete after removing the tube.
Expanded vibro piles are finished finally.

JP
36
 Foundations 2017

Pedestal Pile
Pedestal pile also featured same as Frankie pile. It is also suitable for soils containing limited
thickness bearing stratum at reasonable depth.

Pedestal piles also acts as spread footings. But in this case, steel core is used inside the tube for
driving. After driven to the required level, the core part is taken out and is filled with some
amount of concrete.

Then, replace the core on the concrete and remove the whole tube and core suddenly with
some pressure. This allows the concrete at bottom to expand and forms bulb like shape. This
bulb is called as pedestal.

Repeat the process until the top is reached. Finally tube and core are removed and pedestal pile
is finished.

JP
37
 Foundations 2017

INTEGRITY TESTING OF CONCRETE PILES

Majority of cast-in-situ pile fails because of defective pile shaft necking, intrusion of foreign
matters and improper toe formation due to contamination of concrete at base with soil
particles, discontinuity of concrete, leaching of concrete due to high water current, improper
construction method, poor quality control of concreting etc. Cracks are developed during
handling operation of precast concrete piles, this may also lead to failure of precast concrete
piles. Thus, to ensure the proper placement of piles, its strength and durability, pile integration
test is conducted before completion of pile caps. This integration test of piles ensures proper
functioning of pile foundations without failure.

Sonic Echo Testing (IS 14893:2001) has been used successfully for checking integrity of piles
after installation.
Piles Integrity Testing is quick and simple method and it enables number of piles to be tested in
a single working day. This method provides information about continuity, defects such as
cracks, necking, soil incursions, changes in cross section and approximate pile lengths (unless
the pile is very long or the skin friction is too high). Integrity tests provide an indication of
soundness of concrete but they should be undertaken by persons experienced in the method
and capable of interpreting the results with specific regard to piling.
In piles integrity test, a small metal / hard rubber hammer is used to produce a light tap on the
top of the pile. The shock travels down the length of the pile and is reflected back from the toe
of the pile and recorded through a suitable transducer / accelerometer (also held on the top of
the pile close to the point of impact)in a computer disk for subsequent analysis.

The primary shock wave which travels down the length of the shaft is reflected from the toe by
change in density between the concrete and the sub strata. However, if the pile has any defects
or discontinuities within its length these will set up secondary reflections which will be added to
the return signal.

JP
38
 Foundations 2017

By a careful analysis of the captured signal and a knowledge of the conditions of the ground,
age of the concrete etc. a picture of the location of such problems can be built up.

Normally more than one recording of signals is done until repeatability of signals is achieved. In
case of large diameter piles, the tests are conducted at 5-6 places to cover the entire section of
the pile.

General Requirements of the piles integrity tests:

i) Pile shall be trimmed to cut off level or sound concrete level before the test with all laitance
removed.

ii) The area surrounding the pile should be free from standing water and should be kept
dewatered during the tests.

iii) The cast in situ piles should not normally be tested before 14 days of casting.

JP
39
 Foundations 2017

iv) The test piles, if available at site can be used for determination of pulse velocity and
characteristic or reference signal generated. This can also be done from those piles whose
depth is accurately recorded.

The following are the complimentary tests to the low strain integrity test method. These can be
used to check the soundness of concrete at test level and to assess the stress wave velocity of
pile concrete depending on concrete density and its in-situ condition.

a) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test – This test is carried out at the head of the pile in order to
arrive at the speed of sound propagation through the cast concrete of the pipe.
b) Penetration Test – The test is used to assess the strength of the concrete at the pile head to
ensure that the pile is sufficiently cured and ready for NDT.
c) Density Testing Of Cast Cubes – In order to determine the density of concrete used each
cube should be measured for density by weighing in air and water.
Limitations of Piles Integrity Tests:
i) The present experience of NDT of piles is upto diameter of 1500 mm.

ii) This is applicable to cast in situ concrete bored and driven piles. The test cannot be
conducted after provision / casting of pile cap.

iii) This method is not suitable for piles surrounded by water as it may not give correct results.

iv) It does not provide information regarding verticality or displacement (in position) of the
piles.

v) Local loss of cover, small intrusions or type of conditions at the base of piles are
undetectable.

JP
40
 Foundations 2017

LOAD TESTS ON PILES

Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types of
tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz. vertical, horizontal (lateral)
pull out, are performed on piles.
Initial Tests on piles:
This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide guidelines for
setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives an idea of the suitability of the
piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be carried out at one or more locations depending on
the number of piles required.

Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying capacity of the pile.
Loading for Initial Tests is conducted as per Appendix ‘A’ Clause 6.3of IS-2911 Part IV.
Routine Tests on piles:
Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required subject to
maximum of ½% of total number of piles required. The number of tests may be increased to
2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The test load applied is 1½ times the safe
carrying capacity of the pile. The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-2911
(Part IV) – 1985 shall be followed for loading for the Routine Tests.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:
a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles

b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial Test.

The tests shall be performed at the cut-off level only. A detailed report for the test result is
prepared.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
This test will be carried out as stipulated in IS-2911 (Part IV) 1995.

JP
41
 Foundations 2017

Fig: Vertical load test on piles

Pile Head – The pile head shall be chipped off till sound concrete is met wherever applicable.
The reinforcement shall be cut and head levelled with Plaster of Paris. A bearing plate with a
hole shall be placed on the head for the jack to rest.
Reaction- Kentledge shall be suitably designed to get the desired reaction on the piles. Anchor
piles (if required) shall be placed at a centre to centre distance of 3 times the pile diameter
subject to a minimum distance of 2 M.
Settlement- 2 dial gauges for a single pile and 4 dial gauges for a group of piles with 0.01 mm
sensitivity shall be used. They shall be positioned at equal distance around the piles on datum
bars resting on immovable supports at a distance of 3D (min. of 1.5 m) where D is the diameter
of pile or circumscribing circle for non-circular piles.
Application of load- It shall be applied as specified depending on the type of test (routine /
initial). Each load shall be maintained till the rate of displacement of the pile top is either 0.1
mm in the first 30 minutes or 0.2 mm in the first one hour or 2 hours whichever occurs first.
The next increment in the load shall be applied on achieving the aforesaid criterion.
The test load shall be maintained for 24 hours.

Initial Tests– The safe load on a single pile shall be the least of the following:
(i) 2/3rd of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 12 mm unless
otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of structure in which case,
the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total displacement permissible.
(ii) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement equals 10% of the pile diameter in case
of uniform diameter piles or 7.5% of the bulb diameter in case of under reamed piles.
JP
42
 Foundations 2017

Routine Tests – Acceptance

The maximum settlement at test load should not exceed 12 mm.

Lateral Load Tests on Piles:

Fig: Horizontal load test on piles

The jack should be placed horizontally, between two piles. The load on the jack shall be the
same on both the piles. The load will be applied in increments of 20% of the estimated safe load
and at the cut off level. The load will be increased after the rate of displacement is nearer to 0.1
mm per 30 minutes. If the cut-off level is approachable, one dial gauge exactly at the cut-off
level shall measure the displacement. In case the cut-off level is not approachable, 2 dial gauges
30 cm apart vertically, shall be set up and the lateral displacement of the cut-off level
calculated by similar triangles.

The safe load on the pile shall be the least of the following:
a) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm.

b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm.

Pull out Tests on Piles:

A suitable set up shall be designed to provide an uplift force to the piles. The load increments
and the consequent displacements shall be as per the case of a vertical load test.

JP
43
 Foundations 2017

Fig: Pull-out test on piles

The safe load shall be the least of the following:
a) 2/3rd of the load at which the total displacement is 12 mm or the load corresponding to a
specified permissible lift.

b) Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break.

JP
44
 Foundations 2017

DETERMINATION OF PILES SETTLEMENT BY LOAD TEST

This method covers the determination of the settlement of piles by means of a load test.
Equipment: The following equipment is required:
(a) Kentledge, anchor piles or other anchorages supported or installed at suitable locations to
provide adequate reactions against jacking.

(b) A load-measuring device which shall consist of a load column, pressure cell, or other
appropriate system, calibrated before and after each series of tests, or whenever adjustments
are made to the device, or at time intervals recommended by the manufacturer of the
equipment.

(c) Four deflectometers accurate to 0.025 mm.

(d) Precision levelling equipment accurate to 0.25 mm.

(e) A reference frame for supporting deflectometers and providing a datum for deflectometer
measurements.

(f) Working platforms.

(g) Screens and protection from exposure to conditions which may affect the test.

(h) Hydraulic loading equipment.

The procedure before testing shall be as follows:

(a) The kentledge, anchor piles or other anchorages shall be installed. The centre of each
anchor pile shall be at least 2 m or three times the pile diameter, whichever is greater, from the
centre of the pile to be tested and from the centre of any adjacent pile.
(b) If required, the pile to be tested shall be extended from cut-off level to ground level. The
strength of piles at joints shall not be less than any normal section of the pile.

(c) A temporary square pile cap designed by the Contractor shall be constructed.

JP
45
 Foundations 2017

(d) Working platforms, screens and protection shall be installed.

(e) The reference frame shall be set up on supports which are at least 2 m or three times the
pile diameter, whichever is greater, from the test pile and anchor pile. The four deflectometers
shall be mounted on the reference frame to measure the deflection of the four corners of the
temporary pile cap.

Fig: Pile load test for Burj Khalifa (Dubai)

Procedure: Pile Load Test
The procedure for the pile load test shall be as follows:
(a) Preliminary piles shall be tested to not less than twice the working load of the pile or other
loads stated in the Contract. Working piles shall be tested to not less than 1.8 times working
load. Reductions for group or boundary effects shall not be made in determining the test loads.

(b) Test loads shall be applied and removed in three stages as stated in Table – 1.

(c) Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, the test loads shall be applied in increments,
and removed in decrements, of 25% of the working load. Increments of load shall not be
applied until the rate of settlement of the pile is less than 0.1 mm in 20 minutes.

JP
46
 Foundations 2017

(d) The full test loads for Stage I shall be applied in increments and shall then be maintained for
at least 24 hours after the rate of settlement has reduced to less than 0.1 mm per hour. The
test loads shall be removed in decrements and the recovery of the pile determined before
loading is resumed.

(e) The procedure stated above in (d) shall be repeated for Stage II loading.

(f) The procedure stated above in (d) shall be repeated for Stage III loading unless the Engineer
instructs the loading to be maintained for a longer period.

(g) The settlement of the pile shall be measured at hourly intervals or other intervals agreed by
the Engineer. The settlement of the pile under each increment and decrement of loading shall
be measured. The exact times at which increments are applied and decrements are removed
shall be recorded. Settlements shall be measured and times shall be recorded in the presence
of the Engineer.

(h) The level of the reference beam shall be checked at regular intervals agreed by the Engineer
during the test.

Table – 1: Test loading stages

Stage Test Load

I 25% max. test load

II 50% max. test load

III 100% max. test load

Procedure: after testing

After testing, equipment shall be removed, temporary pile caps shall be demolished and pile
extensions shall be removed to cut-off level. Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer,
anchor piles shall be withdrawn.

Reporting of test results:

The following shall be reported:

(a) The loads applied to the nearest 0.05 t.

JP
47
 Foundations 2017

(b) The settlement of the pile to the nearest 0.05 mm at hourly intervals and under each
increment and decrement of loading.

(c) The exact times at which increments were applied and decrements removed.

(d) The levels of the reference beam, to the nearest 0.05 mm.

Pile Foundation Spacing and Skin Fraction in Pile Group

Construction

Pile foundation spacing and skin friction in a pile group decides the design of pile foundation, its
efficiency and capacity in any construction.

The main purpose of a pile foundation is to let the transfer of load through weak soil strata (soil
strata with poor bearing capacity).

The pile foundation is found to be an economical choice when soil strata at a reasonable depth
is weak. The ending of the pile foundation must reach into strata that gain adequate bearing
capacity.

JP
48
 Foundations 2017

Depending upon the condition, a cluster of piles can be inserted to improve the bearing
capacity.

The piles are also employed in areas where the load must be transmitted by certain frictional
resistance over the depth by means of skin friction with the surrounding soil. This offers
adequate shear resistance.

Pile foundation also helps in avoiding the construction of cofferdams for supporting piers in
water. Here the pile will carry the load to an appreciable supporting medium below a
considerable depth of the water.

The piles that are driven at an angle are called as raker piles. These are used to resist the
inclined forces. The inclined forces are the effect of horizontal thrust.

Those piles that transfer the load to or through an underlying stratum by means of friction is
called the friction pile. Here one of the embedded surfaces is the pile surface.
JP
49
 Foundations 2017

End bearing piles are piles that transfer the load to the lower stratum. Specially designed piles
will transmit the load by both the means.
Suitability of Pile Foundation in Construction
The pile foundation is generally employed in the following type of soil strata:

1. Area with compact or hard stratum, underlying soil is soft material, sand or clay
2. The area with clayey soil with soft stratum overlying the firm layer. Here the open foundations
lead to high settlement
3. Dense or stiff soil with soft clay overlaid. Here the open foundations can be spaced closely to
reduce the pressure that is transmitted to the soft layer
4. Alternative layers of clay- soft layer and thick in nature
5. Sandy strata with high water table. This brings difficulty for excavation

Spacing of Pile Foundation in Pile Group Construction

The piles must be arranged in such a way that the force exerted by one of the piles on the other
is least. In the case of friction piles, this factor is very important. This is because the soil
surrounding the piles are in a stressed condition. This force exertion will affect the frictional
resisting capacity of the neighboring piles.

The influence lines of a cluster of piles on the surrounding ground are shown in the figure-1.
The lines show the stress intensities at a point. More the distance from the pile edge surface,
lesser is the stress intensities. So, this provides an idea on the minimum spacing that must be
provided between the two piles.

JP
50
 Foundations 2017

Fig.1: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of End Bearing Piles

Fig.2: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of Friction Piles
For the convenience of driving and to provide adjustments for any error during the placement
or the problems due to the coming out of the pile from the plumb causing the piles to come
closer, provision of minimum spacing is employed in the case of point bearing piles. The Indian
code IS 2911 have given a proper explanation on this note.

In the case of friction piles, the spacing must be such a way that the zone of the influence lines
on the surrounding soil must not overlap each other. This will hence reduce the bearing values
and reduce the settlement. It is hence mentioned that the minimum spacing should not be less
than the diagonal dimension or the diameter of the pile.

The end bearing piles that are used in compressible soils must be spaced at a minimum of 2.5d
and a spacing of 3.5d(Maximum)for those piles placed on less compressible or stiff clay soil.

The Indian Road Congress specifies a minimum spacing of 3d or a distance equal to pile
perimeter for the friction piles. In the case of end bearing piles, the space between the piles
that are placed adjacent must not be less than least width of the pile.

The spacing of piles as per the practice followed in the UK are based on the following formulae:

End bearing piles: Spacing S = 2.5d + 0.02L

Cohesion Piles: Spacing S = 3.5d + 0.02L

JP
51
 Foundations 2017

Here d is the diameter of the pile and L is its length. The standard also stipulates for pile
capacity till 300 kN, the distance from the edge of the pile to the pile stem must be 100mm. For
higher capacities, the mentioned distance must be 150mm.
Maximum Pile Foundation Spacing
The Maximum pile spacing should be decided by considering two factors:

o The design of pile cap

o Overturning Moments

The pile cap will be heavier with increase in the spacing between the piles. So, while choosing
the spacing of the piles, pile cap design should also be evaluated.

The stability of the whole pile cluster against the action of the overturning moment must be
evaluated along with the spacing of the piles.

Soil Friction Factors for Pile Foundation

The skin friction factors help in the preliminary estimation of the pile capacity. The value of the
soil friction factor varies from driven to bored piles. This factor can be used only for preliminary
calculations.

Before a final decision is taken, a full-scale load test must be carried out. The table-1 shows the
approximate skin friction factors in saturated clay. Here Ro is the consolidation ratio.

Table.1: Skin Friction Factors of Saturated Clay

Pile Length in Clay Driven Piles Normally Over Consolidated Clay- Over Consolidated Clay-
meters Consolidated Driven Pile Bored Pile

20 0.3 0.3 0.15

40 0.2 0.2 0.1

60 0.15 0.15 0.08

JP
52
 Foundations 2017

JP
53