Derivatives of Functions

Tangent Lines and Their Slopes

Let C be the curve that has equation y = f (x), where f is a function which is continuous on an interval J
containing x0 , and suppose that x0 is an interior point of J. If y0 = f (x0 ), then the point P (x0 , y0 ) is on
the curve C. If Q is a point on C different from P , then the line through P and Q is called a secant line
to the curve C.

If L is a line through P (x0 , y0 ) whose slope is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines through P and Q as
Q approaches P along C, then we say that L is tangent to C at P or L is the tangent line to the graph
of the function f (x) at P .

Since f (x) is a function, vertical lines can intersect C at most once. Since Q ̸= P , Q must have a different
x−coordinate from x0 . Therefore, Q = (x0 +h, f (x0 +h)), where h ̸= 0. The slope of the line passing through
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
P and Q is , and this expression is called Newton quotient or difference quotient for
h
f at x0 . (h can be negative or positive)

Figure 1

Definition : Suppose that the function f is continuous at an interior point x0 of its domain and that
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = m exists. Then the straight line having slope m and passing through the point
h→0 h
P (x0 , f (x0 )) is called the tangent line to the graph of the function y = f (x) at P . An equation of this
tangent line is
y = m(x − x0 ) + f (x0 ).

1
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 at the point (1, 1).

Solution. The slope of the tangent line is

(1 + h)2 − 1 h2 + 2h
m = lim = lim = lim (h + 2) = 0 + 2 = 2.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

An equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = 2(x − 1), or equivalently, y = 2x − 1.

Remark : Suppose that f is a function that is continuous at an interior point x0 of its domain. Then,
using the substitution x = x0 + h, we obtain that

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )

lim = lim .
h→0 h x→x0 x − x0
Therefore, the slope m of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) can also calculated
f (x) − f (x0 )
as m = lim . Provided that the limit exists.
x→x0 x − x0
2
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y = at the point (−2, −1).
x
Solution. The slope of the tangent line is
2 x+2
f (x) − f (−2) +1
m = lim = lim x = lim x = lim 1 = −1
x→−2 x − (−2) x→−2 x+2 x→−2 x+2 x→−2 x 2
1 1
An equation of the tangent line is y − (−1) = − (x − (−2)), or equivalently, y = − x − 2.
2 2
Definition : If the function f is continuous at x0 and if either

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = ∞,
h→0 h
or
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = −∞,
h→0 h
then the vertical line x = x0 is tangent to the graph of the function y = f (x) at (x0 , f (x0 )).

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
Remark : If f is a function such that lim does not exist and is not ∞ or −∞, then the
h→0 h
graph of y = f (x) has no tangent line at x = x0 .

Example. Determine whether or not the graphs of each of the following functions has a tangent line at
x = 0. If the graph has a tangent line at x = 0, find its equation.
√
3
(a) f (x) = x

(b) f (x) = x2/3

2
Solution. (a) √
3
f (0 + h) − f (0) h−0 1
lim = lim = lim 2/3 = ∞
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
1
because if h is close to 0, then h2/3 is a small positive number so that 2/3 is a large positive number.
h
√
3
Thus, the graph of y = x has a tangent line at x = 0 which is vertical, and its equation is x = 0.

(b)
f (0 + h) − f (0) h2/3 − 0 1
lim = lim = lim 1/3
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

1 1
lim = −∞ and lim = ∞.
h→0− h1/3 h→0+ h1/3
f (0 + h) − f (0)
So, the limit lim does not exist.
h→0 h
Therefore, there is no tangent line to the graph of the curve y = x2/3 .

The Derivative
Definition : The derivative of a function f is another function f ′ defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
at all points x for which the limit exists (as a finite real number).

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
The derivative of a function f at a number x0 is f ′ (x0 ) = lim if this limit exists.
h
h→0
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
If f ′ (x0 ) exists, then we say that f is differentiable at x0 . If the limit lim does not
h→0 h
exist, then we say that f is not differentiable at x0 . The process of calculating the derivative f ′ of a given
function f is called differentiation.

Remark : The value of the derivative of a function f at a point x0 can also be expressed as

f (x) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
x→x0 x − x0
provided that the limit exists, because under the substitution x = x0 + h we have

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )

lim = lim .
h→0 h x→x 0 x − x0
f (x) − f (x0 )
If lim does not exist, then f is not differentiable at x0 .
x→x0 x − x0

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Example. Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = x3 is f ′ (x) = 3x2 .

Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − x3
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3 2 2
x + 3x h + 3xh + h − x 3 3
= lim = lim (3x2 + 3xh + h2 )
h→0 h h→0
2 2 2
= 3x + 3x · 0 + 0 = 3x .

Thus, f ′ (x) = 3x2 .

Example. Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = sin x is f ′ (x) = cos x.

Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin x sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0
 h h→0 h

h→0 h
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x · + cos x ·
h→0 h h

cos h − 1 (cos h − 1)(cos h + 1) cos2 h − 1 − sin2 h

lim = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h(cos h + 1) h→0 h(cos h + 1) h→0 h(cos h + 1)
 
sin h 1 1
= − lim · sin h · = −1 · 0 · = 0
h→0 h cos h + 1 2

cos h − 1
So, lim = 0.
h→0 h
Therefore,

sin(x + h) − sin x cos h − 1 sin h

lim = sin x lim + cos x lim = sin x · 0 + cos x · 1 = cos x
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

Consequently, f ′ (x) = cos x.

Example. Prove that the function f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0.

Solution.
f (x) − f (0) |x| − 0 |x|
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x−0 x→0 x x→0 x

|x| x
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
x→0+ x x→0 x
+ x→0+

|x| −x
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
x→0− x x→0− x x→0−

|x| |x| |x|

Since lim ̸= lim , the limit lim does not exist. Thus, f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0.
x→0+ x x→0− x x→0 x

Remark : The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0, but it is not differentiable at 0.

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The derivative of the function f (x) = |x| is


′ −1, if x < 0
f (x) =
1, if x > 0.

Theorem : If a function f is differentiable at x0 , then f is continuous at x0 .

Leibniz Notation
If y = f (x), we can use the dependent variable y to represent the function f (x), and we can denote the
derivative of f (x) with respect to x in any of the following ways:

dy df d
f ′ (x) = y ′ = = = f (x) = Dx y = Dx f (x) = Df (x)
dx dx dx
dy df d
The notations , , f (x) are called Leibniz notations for derivative.
dx dx dx

Differentiation Formulas
1) Derivative of a Constant Function
If f (x) = c, where c is a real number, then f ′ (x) = 0.

2) The Power Rule

d n
If n ∈ Z+ , then (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx

3) The Constant Multiple Rule

d
d
If c is a real constant and f is a differentiable function, then cf (x) = c f (x).
dx dx

4) The Sum Rule

d
d d
If f and g are differentiable functions, then f + g is differentiable and f (x) + g(x) = f (x) + g(x).
  dx dx dx
or (f + g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x)

Remark : The sum rule can be extended to the sum of any number of functions. For instance, if f, g, h, k
are differentiable functions, then
d
d d d d
f (x) + g(x) + h(x) + k(x) = f (x) + g(x) + h(x) + k(x),
dx dx dx dx dx
or (f + g + h + k)′ (x) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x) + h′ (x) + k ′ (x).

5
5) The Difference Rule
d
d d
If f and g are differentiable functions, then f − g is differentiable and f (x) − g(x) = f (x) − g(x).
  dx dx dx
or (f − g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) − g ′ (x)

6) The Product Rule

d
d d
If f and g are differentiable functions, then f g is differentiable and f (x)g(x) = f (x) g(x)+g(x) f (x).
 dx  dx dx
or (f g)′ (x) = f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x) or (f g)′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)

Remark : The product rule can be extended to the product of any number of functions. For instance,
if f1 , f2 , ..., fn are differentiable functions, then

′
f1 f2 · · · fn (x) = f1′ (x)f2 (x)f3 (x) · · · fn (x) + f1 (x)f2′ (x)f3 (x) · · · fn (x) + · · · + f1 (x)f2 (x)f3 (x) · · · fn′ (x).
In particular, if f , g and h are differentiable functions, then

′
f gh (x) = f ′ (x)g(x)h(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)h(x) + f (x)g(x)h′ (x).

7) The Quotient Rule

f
If f and g are differentiable functions, then is differentiable and
g
d d
d  f (x)  g(x) dx f (x) − f (x) dx g(x)
=
2
dx g(x) g(x)
or  f ′ f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
(x) =
2 ,
g g(x)
or  f ′ g(x)f ′ (x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
(x) =
2 ,
g g(x)
where g(x) ̸= 0.

8) The Reciprocal Rule

d
1 d 1  − f (x)
dx
If f is a differentiable function, then is differentiable and =
2 , whenever f (x) ̸= 0.
f dx f (x) f (x)
(This is a corollary of the Quotient Rule)

d n
Remark : Since (x ) = nxn−1 for every n ∈ Z+ , using the Reciprocal Rule we obtain that
dx
d n
d −n d  1  − dx (x ) −nxn−1
(x ) = =
2 = = −nx−n−1
dx dx xn x n x 2n

for every n ∈ Z+ .

6
9) The Power Rule (General Version)
d k
If k is any real number, then (x ) = kxk−1 .
dx
Example. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = x4/5

4 4 4 1 4
Solution. f ′ (x) = x 5 −1 = x− 5 = 1/5
5 5 5x
√
(b) f (x) = x
√ 1 1 1 1
Solution. f (x) = x = x1/2 , f ′ (x) = x 2 −1 = x−1/2 = √
2 2 2 x
1
(c) f (x) =
x
1 1
Solution. f (x) = = x−1 , so f ′ (x) = −x−2 = − 2
x x
5
(d) f (x) = 2x4 + 6 + 8
x
Solution. f ′ (x) = 8x3 − 30x−7 + 0 = 8x3 − 30x−7
x
(e) f (x) =
x2 +1
1 · (x2 + 1) − x · 2x 1 − x2
Solution. f ′ (x) = =
(x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2
√  1 
Example. Let f (x) = x 2x + . Find f ′ (4).
x
√
   
1 1 1
Solution. f ′ (x) = √ 2x + + x 2− 2
2 x x x
√
       
′ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 95
f (4) = √ 2·4+ + 4 2− 2 = 8+ +2 2− =2+ +4− =
2 4 4 4 4 4 16 16 8 16

The Chain Rule

If a function g is differentiable at x
and a function f is differentiable at g(x),
then the composite function
F = f ◦ g defined by F (x) = f g(x) is differentiable at x and F ′ (x) = f ′ g(x) g ′ (x).

dy dy du
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then = · .
dx du dx
d
k
k−1 ′
Corollary : If k is any real number and g is a differentiable function, then g(x) = k g(x) g (x).
dx
Example. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = (x2 + 4x + 1)50

Solution. f ′ (x) = 50(x2 + 4x + 1)49 (2x + 4)

7
 √
(b) f (x) = x3 + 9
√
x, h(x) = x3 + 9. Then f ′ (x) = g ′ h(x) h′ (x). So,


Solution. Let f (x) = (g ◦ h)(x) where g(x) =
1 3x2
f ′ (x) = √ · 3x2 = √ .
2 x3 + 9 2 x3 + 9
(c) f (x) = (2x + 1)5 (4x3 − x + 1)4

Solution.

f ′ (x) = 5(2x + 1)4 2 (4x3 − x + 1)4 + (2x + 1)5 4 (4x3 − x + 1)3 (12x2 − 1)
= 10(2x + 1)4 (4x3 − x + 1)4 + 4(2x + 1)5 (4x3 − x + 1)3 (12x2 − 1)
 2x5 − 1 4
(d) f (x) =
x2 + 1
Solution.
3  5 ′ 3
2x5 − 1
 5
10x4 (x2 + 1) − (2x5 − 1) 2x

2x − 1 2x − 1
f ′ (x) = 4 = 4
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
5 3 5
8x(3x + 5x + 1)(2x − 1) 3
=
(x2 + 1)5
Remark : If f is a function that
is differentiable at x0 , then the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
′
y = f (x) at the point x0 , f (x0 ) is m = f (x0 ).
√
4 x  4
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = √ at the point 1, .
x + 2x 3
√
4 x
Solution. Let f (x) = √ .
x + 2x
1 √ √
 
1
4· √ ( x + 2x) − 4 x √ +2 √ √ √
′ 2 x 2 x 2+4 x−2−8 x −4 x
Then, f (x) = √ = √ = √ .
( x + 2x)2 ( x + 2x)2 ( x + 2x)2
−4 −4
The slope of the tangent line is m = f ′ (1) = 2 = .
3 9
4 −4
An equation of the tangent line is y − = (x − 1) or 4x + 9y = 16.
3 9

Normal Line
Let P be a point on a curve C in the xy−plane. If the curve C has a tangent line L at the point P , then
the straight line N through P perpendicular to L is called the normal line to the curve C at P .

If the tangent line L is horizontal,then the normal line N is vertical. Moreover, if L is vertical, then N is
horizontal.

If the tangent line L is neither horizontal nor vertical, and if the slope of L is m, then the slope of the normal
1
line N is − .
m
Example. Find and equation of the normal line to the curve y = x4 + 2x2 − x at the point (1, 2).

8
 dy
Solution. = 4x3 + 4x − 1
dx
dy
= 4 · 13 + 4 · 1 − 1 = 7
dx x=1
1
The slope of the normal line is − .
7
1 1 15
An equation of the normal line is y − 2 = − (x − 1) or y = − x + .
7 7 7

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d
1) sin x = cos x
dx
d
2) cos x = − sin x
dx
d
3) tan x = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x
dx
d
4) cot x = −csc2 x = −1 − cot2 x
dx
d
5) sec x = sec x tan x
dx
d
6) csc x = −csc x cot x
dx

Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

d x
1) e = ex
dx
d x
2) a = ax · ln a for every real number a > 0.
dx
d 1
3) ln x =
dx x
d 1
4) loga x = for every real number a > 0, a ̸= 1.
dx x ln a
Remark :

ln x, if x > 0
ln |x| =
ln(−x), if x < 0

So, we have

1

 ,
if x > 0
x

d 
ln |x| =
dx 
 1

 (−1), if x < 0
−x
1
=
x
for every nonzero real number x.

9
 d 1
Thus, ln |x| = for every x ∈ R \ {0}.
dx x

Implicit Differentiation
Suppose that we have an equation of the form F (x, y) = 0, where F (x, y) denotes an expression involving
the two variables x and y, where y is a function of x (y depends on x).

Sometimes we can solve F (x, y) = 0 for y and so find explicit formulas for one or more functions y = f (x)
defined by the equation. Usually, however, we are not able to solve the equation F (x, y) = 0 for y. We can
still regard the equation F (x, y) = 0 as defining y as one or more functions of x implicitly even if we can
dy
not solve for these functions explicitly. Moreover, the derivative can be found by using the implicit dif-
dx
ferentiation technique. The idea of implicit differentiate (both sides) of the given equation with respect
 dy 
to x, regarding y as a function of x having derivative y ′ or .
dx
dy
Example. Find if y 2 = x.
dx
Solution.
√ dy 1
1st method: If y ≥ 0, then y = x. So, = √ for x > 0.
dx 2 x
√ dy −1
If y < 0, then y = − x. So, = √ for x > 0.
dx 2 x
dy 1
In either case we have = for y ̸= 0.
dx 2y
2nd method: (Using implicit differentiation)

d 2 d
(y ) = (x)
dx dx
dy dy 1
2y = 1. Thus, = for y ̸= 0.
dx dx 2y
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the circle x2 + y 2 = 25 at the point (3, −4).

Solution.

1st method:
√
Since the point (3, −4) belongs to the lower half part of the circle x2 + y 2 = 25, we take y = − 25 − x2 .

dy −1 x
= √ (−2x) = √
dx 2 25 − x 2 25 − x2
The slope of the tangent line is
dy 3 3
m= =√ =
dx x=3 25 − 3 2 4
An equation of the tangent line is
3
y − (−4) = (x − 3)
4

10
or
3 25
y = x−
4 4
2nd method: (Using implicit differentiation)

d 2 d
(x + y 2 ) = (25)
dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy −2x −x
= =
dx 2y y
The slope of the tangent line is

dy −3 3
m= = =
dx (x,y)=(3,−4) −4 4
An equation of the tangent line is
3
y − (−4) = (x − 3)
4
or
3 25
y = x−
4 4
dy 2
Example. Find if y sin x + e2y = x3 + cos y.
dx
Solution.

d  2
 d
y sin x + e2y = x3 + cos y


dx dx
dy 2 dy dy
· sin x + y cos x + e2y · 4y · = 3x2 − sin y ·
dx dx dx
dy  2

sin x + 4ye2y + sin y = 3x2 − y cos x
dx
dy 3x2 − y cos x
Thus, = .
dx sin x + 4ye2y2 + sin y

Derivatives of Inverse Functions

Theorem : If f is a one-to-one differentiable function with inverse function f −1 and f ′ f −1 (a) =


̸ 0, then
−1
the inverse function f is differentiable at a and

′ 1
f −1 (a) = .
f ′ (f −1 (a))

′
Example. Let f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4. Given that f is one-to-one, find f −1 (4).

Solution. f (0) = 4. Therefore, f −1 (4) = 0. f ′ (x) = 6x2 + 6x + 7.

′ 1 1 1 1
f −1 (4) = = = = .
f ′ (f −1 (4)) f ′ (0) 6· 02 +6·0+7 7

11

′
Example. Let f (x) = 4x3 + 3 sin x + 2 cos x. Given that f is one-to-one, find f −1 (2).

Solution. f (0) = 2. Therefore, f −1 (2) = 0. f ′ (x) = 12x2 + 3 cos x − 2 sin x.

′ 1 1 1 1
f −1 (2) = = ′ = = .
f ′ (f −1 (2)) f (0) 12 · 02 + 3 cos 0 − 2 sin 0 3

′
Example. Let f (x) = 2x + cos x. Given that f is invertible, find f −1 (π).
π  π π  π
Solution. f = 2 · + cos = π. Therefore, f −1 (π) = .
2 2 2 2
f ′ (x) = 2 − sin x.

′ 1 1 1 1
f −1 (π) = = π  = π  = = 1.
f ′ (f −1 (π)) f′ 2 − sin 2−1
2 2

Exercises
1. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

a. f (x) = (2x − 3)4 (x2 + x + 1)5

3
x2 + 1

b. f (x) =
x2 − 1
√
c. f (x) = ln(ln( x))

e2x − x3
d. f (x) =
ex2 − 1
e2x − x3
e. f (x) = x2
e −1
e−x cos2 x
f. f (x) =
(x + 1)(x + 2)
2. Suppose that f is a differentiable function defined on R such that f (1) = 2, f ′ (1) = 4 and f ′ (2) = 5. If
g(x) = f (xf (x)), find g ′ (1).

12
Bibliography

[1] Robert A. Adams, Christopher Essex. Calculus: A Complete Course, Pearson, Canada, 2018.

[2] S.K. Chung, Understanding Basic Calculus, lecture notes, Department of Mathematics, University of
Hong Kong.

[3] Paul Dawkins, Calculus I, Paul’s Online Notes. Retrieved from [Link]

[4] James Stewart, Calculus: Metric Version, 8th Edition, Cengage Learning, 2015.

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