Unit II: Social Network Structure, Measures & Visualization

Social Network Theory

Social Network Theory examines relationships between entities (people, organizations, etc.) in terms of
nodes and ties.

• Node: Represents an entity or actor (e.g., person, company, etc.)

• Tie: Represents a relationship or interaction between two nodes.

Key Features of Social Network Theory:

• Focuses on interactions, not just individual behavior.

• Applicable across various domains: social, political, and transportation networks, among
others.

Importance in Modern Marketing:

These theories relate to becoming an “influencer,” which is the future of marketing and advertising’s
recommendation culture.

Advantages of Social Network Analysis:

• Unlike many other methods, it focuses on interaction rather than individual behavior.

• Allows examination of how network configuration influences individuals, groups, organizations,

or systems.

• Can be applied across disciplines—social networks, political networks, electrical networks,

transportation networks, etc.

Network Analysis Components

Node/Vertex

• A point in a network.

• Represents an individual unit in the graph or system.

• Example: In a network of legislators, each node represents a legislator.

Edge

• A connection or tie between two nodes.

• Can be directed or undirected.

Graph/System/Network

• A set of units (nodes) that may be (but are not necessarily) connected to each other.

Node Graph Neighborhood

• The neighborhood N(v) is the set of nodes directly connected to a node v.

Degree
• Degree: The number of edges (connections) a node has.

– Undirected Graph: Count of direct neighbors.

– Directed Graph:

• In-degree: Number of edges directed toward a node.

• Out-degree: Number of edges directed away from a node.

Example: - In a graph where each node connects to 3 others, the degree of each node is 3.

Degree Centrality

• The simplest measure of centrality.

• Counts how many edges each node has.

• The most degree central actor is the one with the most ties.

Importance of Degree:

• In social networks, nodes with high degree might have more influence, access to information,
or prestige.

• Represents the immediate risk of a node for catching whatever is flowing through the network
(e.g., a virus or information).
Regular Graph

A regular graph is a network where every node has the same degree. If each node is connected to 3
others, we call it a 3-regular graph.

Example: - A k-regular graph where k=3 means each node is connected to three other nodes.

Random Graph
In a random graph, edges between nodes are formed randomly with some probability p.

Example: - In a graph with 16 nodes and 120 possible connections, if only 19 connections exist, the
probability of any two nodes being connected is about 1/7.

Comparison with Regular Graphs:

• “Small world” networks can be thought of as in-between random and regular graphs.

• In a random graph, the presence of a connection between A and B, and between B and C,
does not influence the probability of a connection between A and C.
Degree Distribution for Undirected Graph
• Degree Distribution: A frequency count of the degrees of all nodes in a graph.

Example: - If the degrees of nodes in a graph are {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3}, the distribution is: - Degree 1: 1/6 -
Degree 2: 2/6 - Degree 3: 3/6
Degree Distribution for Directed Graph
• For a directed graph, we calculate both in-degree and out-degree distributions.
Clustering
• Clustering Coefficient measures how connected a node’s neighbors are. If a node’s
neighbors are heavily interconnected, it has a high clustering coefficient.

Historical Context:

Clustering Coefficients were introduced by Watts & Strogatz in 1998 as a way to measure how close a node
and its neighbors are to being a clique (a complete graph within a larger graph or network).

Clustering Coefficient Example

Density
Network Density measures how many actual connections exist relative to the total possible connections.

Network density refers to how many possible connections in a network are actually made.

● Potential connections are connections that could exist between any two nodes (people,
computers, etc.), even if they don't currently.
● Actual connections are the ones that actually exist.

For example, at a family reunion, most people know each other, so there are many actual connections,
leading to high network density. On a public bus, fewer people know each other, so there are fewer actual
connections compared to potential ones, resulting in low network density.
Centralization
Centralization measures how focused a network is around one or a few central nodes.

Network centrality measures how central or important a person or organization is in a network. There are
three main types of centrality:

1. Degree Centrality: Measures how many direct connections a node has. Nodes with more
connections are more central.
2. Closeness Centrality: Measures how close a node is to all other nodes in the network. Central
nodes can quickly reach others.
3. Betweenness Centrality: Measures how often a node acts as a bridge between other nodes. High
betweenness nodes connect different parts of the network.

Degree Centrality
• Degree Centrality counts how many edges a node has. Nodes with more connections have
higher degree centrality.

Importance:

• In social networks, nodes with high degree centrality might have more influence or access to
information.

• Represents the immediate risk of a node for catching whatever is flowing through the network.

Closeness Centrality
• Closeness Centrality measures how close a node is to all other nodes in the network.

– Nodes with high closeness can quickly interact with others.

– Based on the sum of shortest paths from a node to all other nodes in the network.

Interpretation:

• Low scores indicate more central nodes (shorter average path to others).

• High scores indicate less central nodes (longer average path to others).

Betweenness Centrality
• Betweenness Centrality measures how often a node lies on the shortest path between other
nodes. High betweenness nodes often act as bridges or bottlenecks.

Importance:

• Identifies potential gatekeepers of information and resources.

• Critical for understanding information flow and network vulnerabilities.

Network Visualization
Network visualization helps represent nodes (entities) and edges (connections) to identify patterns,
clusters, or key players.

Key features include:

- Size: Represents importance or weight of nodes/edges.

- Color: Differentiates groups or types of nodes.

- Labels: Provide detailed information about specific nodes.

- Shape: Can indicate significant subsets or unique characteristics.

Importance:

• Reveals clusters in data, highlighting important differences or similarities.

• Displays comparative relationships between entities better than numerical tables.

• Shows many data elements and the connections between them.

Elements of Network Visualization:

1. Nodes (or vertices): Represent single data points.

2. Edges (or links): Represent connections between nodes.

3. Clusters: Statistically and visually significant groupings of nodes.

4. Paths: Series of edges connected through multiple nodes.

Computer Networks

A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that share resources like hardware, software,
and data. These computers can be connected through cables, telephone lines, or wireless connections.
Networks allow communication and resource sharing.

Advantages of Computer Networks:

1. Share hardware (e.g., printers, scanners).

2. Share data and software between computers.
3. Transfer files easily.
4. Facilitate communication between computers.
5. Cost-saving by sharing resources.
6. Backup and support systems.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks:

1. Risk of data theft by hackers.

2. Viruses can spread easily if one computer is infected.
3. Dependency on the server.
4. Requires time and expertise for maintenance.

Computer Network Services

1. File Services: Manage file transfer, storage, and synchronization.

2. Print Services: Handle print requests and manage network printers.
3. Message Services: Enable communication between users on the network.
4. Application Services: Allow computers to share processing power.
5. Database Services: Provide centralized data storage and retrieval.

Networking Terminology

● Node: Any network device (e.g., computer, printer) that connects to the network.
● Client: A computer that uses resources from another network computer.
● Peer: A self-sufficient computer that acts as both a server and client.
● Server: A computer that shares resources and responds to requests.
● Host: A device that permits access to the network for users.
● Terminal: A device that transmits user data to a host for processing.

Computer Network Components

● Hardware Components:
1. Servers: High-performance computers that manage network resources (e.g., file, database
servers).
2. Clients: Computers that request services from servers.
3. Network Connectors: Devices that connect networking components (e.g., computers,
routers).
4. Networking Cables: Used to connect devices to share resources like printers and scanners.
5. Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware device that connects a computer to the network.
 ● Software Components:
1. Network Operating System (NOS): Manages network services (e.g., UNIX, NetWare).
2. Network Protocols: Rules for data exchange (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).

Computer Network Models

1. Centralized Network

● Definition: A network where a single central node (server) controls all the processing and data
storage, while the other nodes (clients) rely on it.
● Example: A company using one main server to store all its files and applications. All employees
must connect to this server to access data or use software.
● Key Point: If the central server fails, the entire network is affected.

2. Client-Server Network

● Definition: A network where clients (user devices) request services from a server that provides
resources like data, software, or hardware access.
● Example: In an office, employees (clients) access shared files and printers managed by a central
server.
● Key Point: The server manages resources and controls access, but if the server is down, clients
cannot access network resources.

3. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network

● Definition: A network where all nodes (computers) are equal and can act as both clients and
servers. Each node can share resources directly with others without a central server.
● Example: File-sharing applications like BitTorrent, where users download files directly from other
users' computers.
● Key Point: No central server; each device both requests and provides services, making the network
more resilient but harder to manage.

LAN, MAN, WAN

● LAN (Local Area Network): Covers small areas like a building or campus.
● MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city-wide area.
● WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographic areas, such as a country or globally (e.g., the
internet).
Network Topologies

1. Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a loop.

2. Star Topology: All devices connect to a central hub.
○ Advantages: Easy to install and manage, isolates faults.
○ Disadvantages: Central hub failure affects the entire network.

Network Connectivity Devices

1. Router

● Function: Directs data packets between different networks, such as between a local network and
the internet.
● Example: A home router connects your home devices (phones, laptops) to the internet.

2. Switch

● Function: Connects multiple devices within the same local network (LAN) and forwards data to the
correct destination.
● Example: In an office, a switch connects all the computers to enable file sharing and
communication.

3. Ethernet Hub

● Function: Connects multiple devices on a network, but unlike a switch, it broadcasts data to all
connected devices, causing possible traffic collisions.
● Example: Older networks used hubs to connect computers, but they’ve largely been replaced by
switches due to efficiency.

4. Network Repeater

● Function: Extends the range of a network by amplifying or regenerating signals as they pass
through.
● Example: In a large building, a repeater can extend Wi-Fi signals to cover distant areas.

5. Network Bridge

● Function: Connects two different local networks (LANs) to act as a single network, forwarding data
between them.
● Example: A bridge connects a wired network to a wireless network so that devices can
communicate seamlessly.

6. Wireless Access Point (WAP)

● Function: Allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi.

● Example: In cafes, WAPs provide wireless internet access to customers’ smartphones and laptops.

7. Router Gateway

● Function: Combines a router with other functionalities like a firewall or a modem, directing traffic
between networks and controlling access.
● Example: A router gateway in a home connects devices to the internet while protecting them with a
built-in firewall.
 8. Modem

● Function: Modulates and demodulates signals to convert digital data from a computer into a format
suitable for transmission over telephone lines or cable systems.
● Example: Your internet modem connects your home to your internet service provider (ISP), allowing
access to the internet.

Classification of Social Networks

• Vertical Networks: Focus on specific topics (e.g., LinkedIn for professionals).

– Gather users around a specific topic or activity.

– Attractive to fans of particular subjects.

– Examples: Networks focused on athletics, dogs, hiking, or crochet.

• Horizontal Networks: General-purpose platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram).

– Include heterogeneous themes.

– Users share content of any kind, driven by personal interests or tastes.

Professional Social Networks

• Purpose: Establish work-focused connections, promote careers (e.g., LinkedIn).

• Features:

– Personal promotion based on profile and resume exposure.

– Search for specific personnel of interest.

– Cybernetic networking to promote business opportunities.

– Union between different companies or projects.

Entertainment Social Networks

• Focus on leisure and social interaction for fun (e.g., YouTube, TikTok).

• Characteristics:

– Offer a window to disconnection (oxymoron).

– Provide an unfathomable amount of content.

– Unlike professional networks, prioritize entertainment over career advancement.

Additional Topics
Feel free to explore additional advanced topics such as:

- Community Detection: Finding tightly-knit groups within larger networks.

- Graph Theory in Network Analysis: In-depth look at the mathematical foundation of network structures.

- Influence Propagation: How information or behaviors spread through networks.

- Dynamic Network Analysis: Studying how networks change over time.

- Multi-layer Networks: Analyzing networks with multiple types of relationships simultaneously.