Chapter 1: Elementry function

National High School of Mathematics

Contents

1 Arcsin Function 1
1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Table of Common Values of Arcsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Differentiability of Arcsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Arccosine Function 2
2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Table of Common Values of Arccos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Differentiability of Arccos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Arctangent Function 4
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Table of Common Values of Arctan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Differentiability of Arctan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Logarithm Function 5
4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5 Exponential Function 7
5.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6 Logarithm and Exponential of General Bases 8

6.1 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.2 Real Power Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

7 Hyperbolic Functions 9
7.1 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.2 Hyperbolic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.3 Inverse Function Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.4 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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List of Tables
1 Common Values of the Arcsin Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Common Values of the Arccos Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Common Values of the Arctan Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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1. Arcsin Function

1.1 Definition

The sine function, sin(x), is defined for all x ∈ R, but when restricted to [− π2 , π2 ], it is
continuous, increasing, and bijective onto [−1, 1].

Thus, we define its inverse function, called the arcsine function or arcsin, as:

π π
 
arcsin : [−1, 1] → − , where x 7→ arcsin(x)
2 2
Since sin(x) is increasing and differentiable on (− π2 , π2 ), its derivative is sin′ (x) =
cos(x) > 0. Thus, the inverse function arcsin(x) is also continuous and differentiable
in (−1, 1).

1. arcsin : [−1, 1] → [− π2 , π2 ] is continuous on its domain and differentiable on

(−1, 1).

2. arcsin(sin x) = x for all x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ].

3. sin(arcsin x) = x for all x ∈ [−1, 1].

4. arcsin(−x) = − arcsin(x) for all x ∈ [−1, 1].

• Proof of Property 4
For any x ∈ [−1, 1], we also have −x ∈ [−1, 1]. Let θ = arcsin(x). By definition,
θ ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] and sin(θ) = x. It follows that:

−x = − sin(θ) = sin(−θ)

Since −θ ∈ [− π2 , π2 ], we can apply the arcsin function to both sides:

arcsin(−x) = arcsin(sin(−θ)) = −θ

Substituting θ = arcsin(x) gives the desired result: arcsin(−x) = − arcsin(x).

The function arcsin(sin x) is well-defined for all x ∈ R because arcsin is defined

on [−1, 1], and sin(x) always returns a value in this range. However, note that the
identity arcsin(sin x) = x is only valid for x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]. For example:

arcsin(sin 2π) = arcsin(0) = 0 ̸= 2π

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1.2 Table of Common Values of Arcsin

Table 1: Common Values of the Arcsin Function

√ √
1 2 3
x 0 2 2 2
1
π π π π
arcsin(x) 0 6 4 3 2

1.3 Differentiability of Arcsin

Since sin(arcsin x) = x for all x ∈ [−1, 1], differentiating both sides gives:

cos(arcsin x) · (arcsin x)′ = 1

Solving for (arcsin x)′ :

1
(arcsin x)′ =
cos(arcsin x)
Using the identity cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ) = 1 and noting that cos(θ) ≥ 0 for θ ∈ [− π2 , π2 ], we
get:
q √
cos(arcsin x) = 1 − sin2 (arcsin x) = 1 − x2

Thus, the derivative is:

1
(arcsin x)′ = √ , x ∈ (−1, 1)
1 − x2

2. Arccosine Function

2.1 Definition

The function cos(x) is defined for all x ∈ R, but when restricted to [0, π], it is
continuous, decreasing, and bijective onto [−1, 1]. Its inverse function is called
the arccosine function or arccos:

arccos : [−1, 1] → [0, π] where x 7→ arccos(x)

Since cos(x) is decreasing and differentiable on (0, π), its derivative is cos′ (x) =
− sin(x) < 0. Thus, the inverse function arccos(x) is also continuous and differ-
entiable in (−1, 1).

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 1. arccos : [−1, 1] → [0, π] is continuous and decreasing on [−1, 1].

2. arccos(cos x) = x for all x ∈ [0, π].

3. cos(arccos x) = x for all x ∈ [−1, 1].

4. arccos(−x) = π − arccos(x) for all x ∈ [−1, 1].

π
5. arccos(x) + arcsin(x) = 2
for all x ∈ [−1, 1].

6. arccos(x) is continuously differentiable on (−1, 1).

• Proof of Properties 4 and 5

Proof of 4: For any x ∈ [−1, 1], let θ = arccos(x). By definition, θ ∈ [0, π]
and cos(θ) = x. We know that cos(π − θ) = − cos(θ) = −x. Since θ ∈ [0, π], then
π − θ ∈ [0, π]. Applying the arccos function:

arccos(−x) = arccos(cos(π − θ)) = π − θ = π − arccos(x)

Proof of 5: Let f (x) = arcsin(x) + arccos(x) for x ∈ [−1, 1]. The function is
continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). Its derivative is:

1 1
f ′ (x) = √ − √ = 0 for all x ∈ (−1, 1)
1 − x2 1 − x2

Since the derivative is zero, f (x) is constant on [−1, 1]. We evaluate at x = 0:

π π
f (0) = arcsin(0) + arccos(0) = 0 + =
2 2
π
Therefore, arcsin(x) + arccos(x) = 2
for all x ∈ [−1, 1].

Since cos(x) ∈ [−1, 1] for all x ∈ R, the expression arccos(cos x) is well defined for
all real x. However, the identity arccos(cos x) = x is true only for x ∈ [0, π].

2.2 Table of Common Values of Arccos

2.3 Differentiability of Arccos

Since cos(arccos x) = x for all x ∈ [−1, 1], differentiating both sides gives:

− sin(arccos x) · (arccos x)′ = 1

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 Table 2: Common Values of the Arccos Function
√ √
3 2 1
x 1 2 2 2
0
π π π π
arccos(x) 0 6 4 3 2

Solving for (arccos x)′ :

1
(arccos x)′ = −
sin(arccos x)
q
Using sin(θ) = 1 − cos2 (θ) for θ ∈ [0, π]:
q √
sin(arccos x) = 1 − cos2 (arccos x) = 1 − x2

Thus:
1
(arccos x)′ = − √ , x ∈ (−1, 1)
1 − x2

3. Arctangent Function

3.1 Definition

π
The function tan(x) is defined for all x ∈ R except at x = 2
+ kπ, k ∈ Z. When
restricted to the interval (− π2 , π2 ), it is continuous, strictly increasing, and bijective
onto R. It admits an inverse function, called the arctangent function or arctan,
defined as:
π π
 
arctan : R → − , where x 7→ arctan(x)
2 2
Since tan(x) is smooth and has a nonzero derivative on (− π2 , π2 ), its inverse function
is also continuously differentiable.
Session: 5/2/2025

3.2 Table of Common Values of Arctan

Table 3: Common Values of the Arctan Function

√
3
√
x 0 3
1 3 →∞
π π π π
arctan(x) 0 6 4 3
→ 2

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 1. arctan : R → (− π2 , π2 ).

2. arctan is increasing.

3. arctan(tan x) = x for all x ∈ (− π2 , π2 ).

4. tan(arctan x) = x for all x ∈ R.

5. arctan(−x) = − arctan(x) for all x ∈ R.

3.3 Differentiability of Arctan

The derivative of the arctangent function is given by:

1
(arctan x)′ =
1 + x2

• Proof
Since tan(x) is differentiable, we compute its derivative: tan′ (x) = 1 + tan2 (x). We start
with the identity tan(arctan(x)) = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x using the
chain rule gives:

(tan(arctan(x)))′ = (x)′ =⇒ tan′ (arctan(x)) · (arctan x)′ = 1

Substituting the formula for the derivative of tangent:

(1 + tan2 (arctan x)) · (arctan x)′ = 1

Since tan(arctan(x)) = x, we have tan2 (arctan(x)) = x2 . Substituting this in:

(1 + x2 ) · (arctan x)′ = 1

Solving for the derivative of arctan, we get:

1
(arctan x)′ =
1 + x2

4. Logarithm Function

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4.1 Definition

We define the natural logarithm function as the unique function ln(x) that satisfies:

• It is defined for x > 0.

• It verifies: ln′ (x) = 1

x and ln(1) = 0.

The existence of ln(x) follows from the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (as ln(x) =
Rx 1
1 t dt), and its uniqueness is established as follows:

• Proof of Uniqueness
Suppose there exist two functions f (x) and g(x) satisfying f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) = 1
x and
f (1) = g(1) = 0. Define h(x) = f (x) − g(x). Then:

1 1
h′ (x) = f ′ (x) − g ′ (x) = − =0
x x

Since h′ (x) = 0 on (0, +∞), h(x) must be a constant. We know:

h(1) = f (1) − g(1) = 0 − 0 = 0

Thus, h(x) = 0 for all x > 0, implying f (x) = g(x). Therefore, the logarithm function is
unique.

1. Monotonicity: ln(x) is a strictly increasing function on (0, +∞).

2. Multiplicative Property: ln(xy) = ln(x) + ln(y), ∀x, y > 0.

3. Power Rule (Integer Case): ln(xn ) = n ln(x), ∀n ∈ N, x > 0.

4. Power Rule (Rational Case): ln(xr ) = r ln(x), ∀r ∈ Q, x > 0.

5. Limits: limx→∞ ln(x) = +∞ and limx→0+ ln(x) = −∞.

• Proof of Properties

1. Monotonicity: Since ln′ (x) = 1

x > 0 for x > 0, ln(x) is strictly increasing.

2. Multiplicative Property: Fix y > 0 and define h(x) = ln(xy) − ln(x) − ln(y) for x > 0.
y
Differentiating with respect to x: h′ (x) = xy − 1
x −0 = 1
x − 1
x = 0. So, h(x) is constant
on (0, +∞). Evaluating at x = 1: h(1) = ln(y) − ln(1) − ln(y) = 0. Thus, h(x) = 0 for all
x > 0, proving ln(xy) = ln(x) + ln(y).

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 3. Power Rule for Natural Numbers: Proof by induction on n. Base case (n = 1):
ln(x1 ) = 1 · ln(x), which is true. Inductive step: Assume ln(xk ) = k ln(x) for some k ∈ N.
Consider ln(xk+1 ):

ln(xk+1 ) = ln(xk · x) = ln(xk ) + ln(x) = k ln(x) + ln(x) = (k + 1) ln(x)

The property holds for all n ∈ N.

p
4. Power Rule for Rational Numbers: Let r = q with p ∈ Z, q ∈ N∗ . Let y = xr = xp/q .
Then y q = xp . Taking the natural log of both sides:

ln(y q ) = ln(xp ) =⇒ q ln(y) = p ln(x)

Solving for ln(y):

p
ln(y) = ln(x) =⇒ ln(xr ) = r ln(x)
q

5. Exponential Function

5.1 Definition

Since ln(x) : (0, ∞) → R is a strictly increasing, continuous, and bijective function, it has
an inverse function, which we call the exponential function, denoted exp(x), with
domain R and range (0, ∞).
exp : R → (0, ∞)

1. exp(x + y) = exp(x) · exp(y) for all x, y ∈ R.

2. For all x ∈ R, r ∈ Q, exp(rx) = (exp(x))r .

3. Limits: limx→∞ exp(x) = +∞ and limx→−∞ exp(x) = 0.

• Proof of Properties

1. Let A = exp(x) and B = exp(y). This means ln(A) = x and ln(B) = y. Using the
logarithm property: ln(A · B) = ln(A) + ln(B) = x + y. Now, take the exponential of
both sides:
exp(ln(A · B)) = exp(x + y) =⇒ A · B = exp(x + y)

Substituting back A and B: exp(x) · exp(y) = exp(x + y).

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 2. Let A = exp(x), so ln(A) = x. Using the logarithm power rule:

ln(Ar ) = r ln(A) = rx

Now, take the exponential of both sides:

exp(ln(Ar )) = exp(rx) =⇒ Ar = exp(rx)

Substituting back A: (exp(x))r = exp(rx).

Session: 10/2/2024

6. Logarithm and Exponential of General Bases

Let a be a positive real number with a ̸= 1. We define the logarithm of base a as:

ln(x)
loga (x) = , for x > 0
ln(a)

The exponential of base a, written ax , is the inverse function of loga (x).

6.1 Propositions
1. For all a > 0, a ̸= 1: (loga x)′ = x ln(a) .
1

2. For x > 0:

• loga (x) is increasing if a > 1.

• loga (x) is decreasing if 0 < a < 1.

3. For all x, y > 0: loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y).

4. For all x > 0 and for all c ∈ R: loga (xc ) = c loga (x).

6.2 Real Power Functions

Let a > 0 and x ∈ R. We can find an explicit formula for the exponential base a, ax : Let
y = ax . Then by definition of the inverse, x = loga (y).
ln(y)
x= =⇒ x ln(a) = ln(y)
ln(a)
Taking the natural exponential of both sides:

exp(x ln a) = exp(ln y) = y

This gives the fundamental definition for real powers:

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 For all a > 0 and for all r ∈ R, we define:

ar = exp(r ln a)

For a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ R:

• (ab)x = ax bx

• ax+y = ax ay

• (ax )y = axy

• a0 = 1 and a1 = a

7. Hyperbolic Functions

We define the hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine, and hyperbolic tangent functions as fol-
lows:

ex −e−x
1. Hyperbolic Sine: sinh(x) = 2 . This is an odd function with Domain: R and
Range: R.

ex +e−x
2. Hyperbolic Cosine: cosh(x) = 2 . This is an even function with Domain: R
and Range: [1, +∞).

sinh(x) ex −e−x
3. Hyperbolic Tangent: tanh(x) = cosh(x) = ex +e−x . This is an odd function with
Domain: R and Range: (−1, 1).

7.1 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The function cosh(x) restricted to [0, +∞) is bijective onto [1, ∞), so it admits an inverse,
denoted arccosh(x) or cosh−1 (x).
The function sinh(x) is bijective from R to R, so it admits an inverse, denoted arcsinh(x)
or sinh−1 (x).
The function tanh(x) is bijective from R to (−1, 1), so it admits an inverse, denoted
arctanh(x) or tanh−1 (x).
Session: 12/2/2025

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7.2 Hyperbolic Identities
• cosh2 (a) − sinh2 (a) = 1

• cosh(a + b) = cosh(a) cosh(b) + sinh(a) sinh(b)

• sinh(a + b) = sinh(a) cosh(b) + cosh(a) sinh(b)

• cosh(2a) = cosh2 (a) + sinh2 (a) = 2 cosh2 (a) − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 (a)

• sinh(2a) = 2 sinh(a) cosh(a)

7.3 Inverse Function Formulas

 √ 
1. arccosh(α) = ln α + α2 − 1 , α≥1
 √ 
2. arcsinh(α) = ln α + α2 + 1 , α∈R
 
3. arctanh(x) = 1
2 ln 1+x
1−x , x ∈ (−1, 1)

• Derivation of arccosh formula

Let y = arccosh(α), where α ≥ 1 and y ≥ 0. By definition, cosh(y) = α.

ey + e−y
=α
2

Multiplying by 2ey gives:

e2y + 1 = 2αey =⇒ e2y − 2αey + 1 = 0

This is a quadratic equation in u = ey . Using the quadratic formula for u:

√
2α ± 4α2 − 4 p
u= = α ± α2 − 1
2
√ √
So, ey = α± α2 − 1. Since y ≥ 0, we must have ey ≥ 1. For α > 1, the term α− α2 − 1 <
1. Therefore, we must choose the positive root:
p
ey = α + α2 − 1

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives the result:

 p 
y = arccosh(α) = ln α + α2 − 1

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7.4 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
1. d
dα arccosh(α) = √ 1
α2 −1
, α>1

2. d
dα arcsinh(α) = √ 1
α2 +1
, α∈R

3. d
dx arctanh(x) = 1
1−x2
, x ∈ (−1, 1)

• Derivation of arccosh derivative

√
We differentiate the explicit formula arccosh(α) = ln(α + α2 − 1). Using the chain
rule:

d 1 d  p 
arccosh(α) = √ · α + α2 − 1
dα α + α2 − 1 dα
1 1
 
= √ · 1+ √ · 2α
α + α2 − 1 2 α2 − 1
1 α
 
= √ · 1+ √
α + α2 − 1 α2 − 1
√
1 α2 − 1 + α
!
= √ · √
α + α2 − 1 α2 − 1
1
=√
α2 − 1

This course material was prepared by Prof. [Link] and transcribed by students.
You may encounter minor typos or errors due to transcription. We appreciate your
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