Unit-I

Introduction
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Nature of Environments

Structure of Agents.
 What is Artificial Intelligence?

● One of the booming technologies of computer science is

Artificial Intelligence which is ready to create a new
revolution in the world by making intelligent machines.
● The Artificial Intelligence is now all around us.
● It is currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging
from general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing
chess, proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.
 What is Artificial Intelligence?

● AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer

science which has a great scope in future.
● AI holds tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.
● Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial
and Intelligence, where Artificial defines "man-made," and
intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a
man-made thinking power.“
● So, we can define AI as:
● "It is a branch of computer science by which we can create
intelligent machines which can behave like a human, think
like humans, and able to make decisions."
Foundations of AI

● Philosophy
– 450 BC, Socrates asked for algorithm to distinguish pious from
non-pious individuals
– Aristotle developed laws for reasoning
● Mathematics
– 1847, Boole introduced formal language for making logical inference
● Economics
– 1776, Smith views economies as consisting of agents maximizing their
own well being (payoff)
● Neuroscience
– 1861, Study how brains process information
● Psychology
– 1879, Cognitive psychology initiated
● Linguistics
– 1957, Skinner studied behaviorist approach to language learning
 Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

● Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have

human based skills such as learning, reasoning, and
solving problems

● With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram

a machine to do some work, despite that you can create a
machine with programmed algorithms which can work
with own intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.
 Why Artificial Intelligence?

● With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which
can solve real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as
health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.

● With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant,
such as Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
● With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk.

● AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.
 Goals of Artificial Intelligence
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human
intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess

o Plan some surgical operation

o Driving a car in traffic

5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behaviour, learn

new things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
 What Comprises to Artificial
Intelligence?
• Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of
computer science.
• To create the AI, first we should know
that how intelligence is composed, so
the Intelligence is an intangible part of
our brain which is a combination of
Reasoning, learning, problem-solving
perception, language understanding, etc.

• To achieve the above factors for a

machine or software, Artificial
Intelligence requires the following
disciplines:
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Nature of Environments

Structure of Agents.
History of Artificial Intelligence
 History of Artificial Intelligence

• Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

• Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
• Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection
strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
• Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to
exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.
 History of Artificial Intelligence

• The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

• Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence
program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52
Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
• Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer
scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as
an academic field.

• At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or

COBOL were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that
time.
 History of Artificial Intelligence

• The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

• Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which
was named as ELIZA.
• Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as
WABOT-1.

• The first AI winter (1974-1980)

• The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of
funding from government for AI researches.
 History of Artificial Intelligence

• A boom of AI (1980-1987)
• Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human
expert.
• In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

• The second AI winter (1987-1993)

• The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.

• Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost
but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.
 History of Artificial Intelligence

• The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

• Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
• Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum
cleaner.
• Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like
Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.
 History of Artificial Intelligence
• Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence
(2011-present)
• Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve
the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand
natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.

• Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able to
provide information to the user as a prediction.

• Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the
infamous "Turing test."

• Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master
debaters and also performed extremely well.

• Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and which
had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that she was
talking with the machine.
Applications of AI (State-of-the-art)
 Applications of Artificial Intelligence
1. AI in Astronomy
• Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI technology can be
helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.

2. AI in Healthcare
• Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can help
doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help can reach to
the patient before hospitalization.

3. AI in Gaming
• AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess, where the
machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4. AI in Finance
• AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is implementing
automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning into financial
processes.
 Applications of Artificial Intelligence
5. AI in Data Security
– The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very rapidly in the
digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure. Some examples such as AEG
bot, AI2 Platform, are used to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.

6. AI in Social Media
– Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user profiles, which
need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage massive
amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and requirement of
different users.

7. AI in Travel & Transport

– AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various travel related
works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and best routes to the
customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can make human-like interaction
with customers for better and fast response.
 Applications of Artificial Intelligence
8. AI in Automotive Industry
– Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for better
performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant.
– Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your journey
more safe and secure.

9. AI in Robotics:
– Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are programmed such
that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we can create intelligent robots
which can perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-programmed.
– Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot named
as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like humans.

10. AI in Entertainment
– We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some entertainment services
such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the
recommendations for programs or shows.
 Applications of Artificial Intelligence
11. AI in Agriculture
– Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best result. Now a
day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is applying AI as
agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful
for farmers.

12. AI in E-commerce
– AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more demanding in
the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products with recommended
size, color, or even brand.

13. AI in education:
– AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can communicate
with students as a teaching assistant.
– AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be accessible easily at
any time and any place.
 Advantages of Artificial Intelligence
• High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less
errors and high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or
information.

• High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision

making, because of that, AI systems can beat a chess champion in the
Chess game.

• High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same
action multiple times with high accuracy.
 Advantages of Artificial Intelligence
• Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as
defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can
be risky.

• Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the

users such as AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce
websites to show the products as per customer requirement.

• Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as
a self-driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial
recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to
communicate with the human in human-language, etc.
 Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence
• High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as
it requires lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
• Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with
AI, but still they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that
work for which they are trained, or programmed.
• No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding
performer, but still it does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind
of emotional attachment with human, and may sometime be harmful for
users if the proper care is not taken.
 Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

• Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology,

people are getting more dependent on devices and hence they are
losing their mental capabilities.

• No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine

some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat this power of human
intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Nature of Environments

Structure of Agents.
 Benefits of Artificial Intelligence
1. Increase work efficiency:
• AI-powered machines are great at doing a particular repetitive task with amazing efficiency. The
simple reason is that they remove human errors from their tasks to achieve accurate results every
time they do that specific task.

2. Work with high accuracy:

• Scientists are working to teach artificial intelligence powered machines to solve complex equations
and perform critical tasks on their own so that the results obtained have higher accuracy as
compared to their human counterparts.

3. Reduce cost of training and operation

• AI uses machine learning algorithms like Deep Learning and neural networks to learn new things
like humans do. This way they eliminate the need to write new code every time we need them to
learn new things.

4. Improve Processes:
• The best part about AI-powered machines being deployed for work is that they let us gather
humongous amounts of data related to their work. Such data can be processed to gather deep
insights into the processes with quantitative analysis so that we can optimize them even further.
 Risks of Artificial Intelligence
1. AI is Unsustainable:
• Intelligent machines have characteristically high computing powers contributed by an
array of several processers. These computer chips have rare earth materials like
Selenium as a major constituent. Besides, the batteries of such machines run on
Lithium, again a rare element in earth’s crust. The increased mining of these
materials is irreversibly damaging our environment at a rapid pace. Moreover, they
consume huge amounts of power to function, that is putting severe pressure on our
power plants and again harming the environment.

2. Lesser Jobs:
• There is no doubt that machines do routine and repeatable tasks much better than
humans. Many businesses would prefer machines instead of humans to increase
their profitability, thus reducing the jobs that are available for the human workforce.

3. A threat to Humanity?
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Types of AI

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Nature of Environments

Structure of Agents.
 Types of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of
main categorization which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI.
Following is flow diagram which explain the types of AI.
 AI type-1: Based on Capabilities
1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
– Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.
The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial
Intelligence.
– Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one
specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable
ways if it goes beyond its limits.
– Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.

– IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert
system approach combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.

– Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on

e-commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.
 AI type-1: Based on Capabilities
2. General AI:
• General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.
• The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and
think like a human by its own.
• Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can
perform any task as perfect as a human.
• The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.

• As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and
time to develop such systems.
 AI type-1: Based on Capabilities
3. Super AI:
– Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is
an outcome of general AI.
– Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to
reason, solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.

– Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such

systems in real is still world changing task.
 Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
– Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.

– Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.

– These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best
action.

– IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.

– Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
– Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period
of time.

– These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.

– Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars
can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and
other information to navigate the road.
 Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

3. Theory of Mind
– Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able
to interact socially like humans.
– This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of
efforts and improvement for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness
– Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super
intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.

– These machines will be smarter than human mind.

– Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Nature of Environments

Structure of Agents.
 Agents in Artificial Intelligence

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and act
on their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have mental
properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.
Agent: An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through
sensors and act upon that environment through actuators. An Agent runs in
the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:
– Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for
sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.

– Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for
sensors and various motors for actuators.

– Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input
and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.
 Agents - Terms (computer program or system that is designed to
perceive its environment)

● Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and
sends the information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its
environment through sensors.
● Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into
motion. The actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system.
An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
● Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can
be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.
Agents
Agents related Terms

● Percept :
– A complete history of everything the agent has ever
perceived. Perception in AI involves the interpretation of
data from sensors, cameras, microphones, or other
input devices to understand the environment
● Agent function (or Policy):
– Maps percept to action (determines agent behavior)
– Abstract mathematical description
● Agent program:
– Implements the agent function, running on agents
architecture.
– An agent together with its environment is called a world
Agent
● An agent perceives its environment through
sensors
– the complete set of inputs at a given time is called a
percept
– the current percept, or a sequence of percepts may
influence the actions of an agent

● It can change the environment through actuators

– an operation involving an actuator is called an action
– actions can be grouped into action sequences
Agent function and program

•The agent function maps from percept histories to actions:

[f: P* 🡪 A]
•The agent program runs on the physical architecture to produce
f
agent = architecture + program

environment -> sensors -> agent function -> actuators -> environment.
Vacuum-cleaner world
● Agent Program

function REFLEX-VACCUM-AGENT([ location,

status]) returns an action
if status=dirty then return suck
else if location = A then return right
else if location = B then return left
 Vacuum-cleaner world

● Percepts: location and contents,

e.g., [A, Dirty]
● Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp
● Agent’s function 🡪 look-up table
– For many agents this is a very large
table

45
 Types of AI Agents
● Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived
intelligence and capability. All these agents can improve their performance and
generate better action over the time. These are given below:

– Simple Reflex Agent

– Model-based reflex agent

– Goal-based agents

– Utility-based agent
– Learning agent
1. Simple Reflex agent:

● Simple but very limited intelligence.

● Action does not depend on percept history, only on current
percept.
● Therefore no memory requirements.
● Infinite loops
– Suppose vacuum cleaner does not observe location. What do you
do given location = clean? Left of A or right on B -> infinite loop.
– Possible Solution: Randomize action[condition-action rule]

● Chess – openings, endings

– Lookup table (not a good idea in general)
● 35100 entries required for the entire game
1. Simple Reflex agent:
Simple Reflex Agent
Function SIMPLE-REFLEX-AGENT(percept)
returns an action
static: rules, A set of condition-action rules

state <- INTERPERFECT-INPUT(percept)

rules <- RULE-MATCH(state, rules)
action<- RULE-ACTION[rule]
return action
 2. Model-based reflex agent
● The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and
track the situation.
● A model-based agent has two important factors:
– Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called a Model-based
agent.

– Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept history.

● These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on
the model they perform actions.

● Updating the agent state requires information about:

– How the world evolves
– How the agent's action affects the world.
2. Model-based reflex agent
 3. Goal-based agents
● The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to
decide for an agent to what to do.
● The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
● Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by
having the "goal" information.

● They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.

● These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions

before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of
different scenario are called searching and planning, which makes an agent
proactive.
 Goal-based agents

• Knowing current state and environment? Enough?

– Taxi can go left, right, straight
• Have a goal(Describe situations that are desirable
• A destination to get to
● Uses knowledge about a goal to guide its actions
– E.g., Search, planning

53
3. Goal-based agents

• Reflex agent breaks when it sees brake lights. Goal based agent
reasons
– Brake light -> car in front is stopping -> I should stop -> I should use brake
 4. Utility-based agents
● These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra
component of utility measurement which makes them different by providing a
measure of success at a given state.
● Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve
the goal.

● The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives,
and an agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.

● The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently
each action achieves the goals.
 Utility-based agents

● Goals are not always enough

– Many action sequences get taxi to destination
– Consider other things. How fast, how safe…..

● A utility function maps a state onto a real number

which describes the associated degree of
“happiness”, “goodness”, “success”.

56
4. Utility-based agents
 5. Learning Agents
● A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
● It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.

● A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

– Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from environment

– Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how well the agent is
doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
– Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
– Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that will lead to new
and informative experiences.

● Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for
new ways to improve the performance.
5. Learning Agents
 Learning agents

⚫ Performance element
is what was previously the
whole agent
⚫ Input sensor
⚫ Output action
⚫ Learning element
⚫ Modifies performance
element.

60
 Learning agents

⚫ Critic: how the agent is

doing
⚫ Input: checkmate?
⚫ Fixed

⚫ Problem generator
⚫ Tries to solve the
problem differently
instead of optimizing.
⚫ Suggests exploring new
actions -> new problems.

61
 Intelligent Agents
● An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment
using sensors and actuators for achieving goals.
● An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their goals.
● A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.

● Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

– Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

– Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
– Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
– Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.
 What intelligent agents are ?

“An intelligent agent is one that is capable of flexible

autonomous action in order to meet its design objectives,
where flexible means three things:
● reactivity: agents are able to perceive their environment, and
respond in a timely fashion to changes that occur in it in order to
satisfy its design objectives;
● pro-activeness: intelligent agents are able to exhibit
goal-directed behavior by taking the initiative in order to satisfy
its design objectives;
● social ability: intelligent agents are capable of interacting with
other agents (and possibly humans) in order to satisfy its design
objectives”;
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Nature of Environments

Structure of Agents.
 Rationality

● The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance

measure.
● Rationality can be judged on the basis of following points:
– Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
– Agent prior knowledge of its environment.

– Best possible actions that an agent can perform.

– The sequence of percepts.
 Rational Agent

● A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models

uncertainty, and acts in a way to maximize its performance measure
with all possible actions.

● A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating

rational agents to use for game theory and decision theory for various
real-world scenarios.

● For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI

reinforcement learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent
gets the positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a
negative reward.
● Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.
Rational Agent
● A computer program that uses logical reasoning
and the ability to make decisions to determine its
following action. An excellent example of a rational
agent is a chess player.

● Rationality depends on 4 things:

1. Performance measure of success

2. Agent’s prior knowledge of environment
3. Actions agent can perform
4. Agent’s percept sequence to date
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Structure of Agents

Nature of Environments
 Structure of an AI Agent
● The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent
function.
● The structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent
program. It can be viewed as:

Agent = Architecture + Agent program

● Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

● Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

● Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

f : P* → A

● Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An

agent program executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.
 PEAS Representation
● PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an
AI agent or rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS
representation model. It is made up of four words:

– P: Performance measure

– E: Environment

– A: Actuators

– S: Sensors
• Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's
behavior.
 PEAS for self-driving cars
● Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

– Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

– Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian

– Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

– Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

 Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors

measure

1. Medical •Healthy patient •Patient •Tests Keyboard

Diagnose •Minimized cost •Hospital •Treatments (Entry of
•Staff symptoms)
2. Vacuum •Cleanness •Room •Wheels •Camera
Cleaner •Efficiency •Table •Brushes •Dirt detection
•Battery life •Wood floor •Vacuum sensor
•Security •Carpet Extractor •Cliff sensor
•Various •Bump Sensor
obstacles •Infrared Wall
Sensor
3. Part - •Percentage of •Conveyor belt •Jointed Arms •Camera
picking Robot parts in correct with parts, •Hand •Joint angle
bins. •Bins sensors.
Outline

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Structure of Agents

Nature of Environments
 Agent Environment in AI

● An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is

not a part of an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in

which an agent is present.

● The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with

something to sense and act upon it.

 Features of Environment

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic

3. Discrete vs Continuous

4. Deterministic vs Stochastic

5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

6. Episodic vs sequential

7. Known vs Unknown

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible.
 Features of Environment
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:
– If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point of
time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
– A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to
keep track history of the world.

– An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called as

unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
– If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of the
environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.

– A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an

agent.

– In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.
 Features of Environment

3. Episodic vs Sequential:
– In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.
– However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
– If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.

– However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is

called a multi-agent environment.

– The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent
environment.
 Features of Environment
5. Static vs Dynamic:
– If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such environment is
called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
– Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue looking at the
world while deciding for an action.

– However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each action.

– Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an

example of a static environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:
– If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be performed
within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is called continuous
environment.
– A chess game comes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves that can
be performed.
– A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.
 Features of Environment

7. Known vs Unknown
– Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's state of
knowledge to perform an action.
– In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in unknown
environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.

– It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown

environment to be fully observable.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
– If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment, then
such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called inaccessible.
– An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an accessible
environment.
– Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
 Environment Examples
Environment Obser Determi Episodic Static Discrete Agents
vable nistic
Chess with a clock

Chess without a clock

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Obser Determin Episodic Static Discrete Agents
vable istic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples

Environment Observ Determini Episodic Static Discrete Agents

able stic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
Discrete vs. continuous
 Environment Examples
Environment Observ Determini Episodic Static Discrete Agents
able stic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Observ Determini Episodic Static Discrete Agents
able stic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
Discrete vs. continuous
 Environment Examples
Environment Observ Determini Episodic Static Discrete Agents
able stic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Observ Determini Episodic Static Discrete Agents
able stic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dyna Continuou Multi

mic s

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Observ Determini Episodic Static Discrete Agents
able stic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dyna Continuou Multi

mic s
Medical diagnosis

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Observa Determinis Episodic Static Discrete Agents
ble tic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dynami Continuous Multi

c
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochastic Episodic Static Continuous Single

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Observa Determinis Episodic Static Discrete Agents
ble tic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dynami Continuous Multi

c
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochastic Episodic Static Continuous Single

Image analysis

Fully observable vs. partially

observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic /
strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
 Environment Examples
Environment Observa Determinis Episodic Static Discrete Agents
ble tic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dynami Continuous Multi

c
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochastic Episodic Static Continuous Single

Image analysis Fully Deterministi Episodic Semi Discrete Single

c
Fully observable vs. partially
observable
Deterministic vs. stochastic / strategic
Episodic vs. sequential
Static vs. dynamic
Discrete vs. continuous
Single agent vs. multiagent
 Environment Examples
Environment Observa Determinis Episodic Static Discrete Agents
ble tic

Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dynami Continuous Multi

c
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochastic Episodic Static Continuous Single

Image analysis Fully Deterministi Episodic Semi Discrete Single

c
Robot part picking
 Environment Examples
Environment Observa Determinis Episodic Static Discrete Agents
ble tic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochastic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Taxi driving Partial Stochastic Sequential Dynami Continuous Multi

c
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochastic Episodic Static Continuous Single

Image analysis Fully Deterministi Episodic Semi Discrete Single

c
Robot part picking Fully Deterministi Episodic Semi Discrete Single
c
Environment Examples
Environment Obser Determi Episodic Stati Discret Agent
vable nistic c e s

Chess with a clock Fully Strategi Sequenti Semi Discret Multi

c al e
Chess without a Fully Strategi Sequenti Stati Discret Multi
clock c al c e
Poker Partial Strategi Sequenti Stati Discret Multi
c al c e
Backgammon Fully Stochas Sequenti Stati Discret Multi
tic al c e
Taxi driving Partial Stochas Sequenti Dyna Continu Multi
tic al mic ous
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochas Episodic Stati Continu Single
tic c ous
Image analysis Fully Determi Episodic Semi Discret Single
nistic e
Robot part picking Fully Determi Episodic Semi Discret Single
nistic e
Interactive English
tutor
Environment Examples
Environment Obser Determi Episodic Stati Discret Agent
vable nistic c e s

Chess with a clock Fully Strategi Sequenti Semi Discret Multi

c al e
Chess without a Fully Strategi Sequenti Stati Discret Multi
clock c al c e
Poker Partial Strategi Sequenti Stati Discret Multi
c al c e
Backgammon Fully Stochas Sequenti Stati Discret Multi
tic al c e
Taxi driving Partial Stochas Sequenti Dyna Continu Multi
tic al mic ous
Medical diagnosis Partial Stochas Episodic Stati Continu Single
tic c ous
Image analysis Fully Determi Episodic Semi Discret Single
nistic e
Robot part picking Fully Determi Episodic Semi Discret Single
nistic e
Interactive English Partial Stochas Sequenti Dyna Discret Multi
tutor tic al mic e
Environment Properties
● fully observable vs. partially observable
– sensors capture all relevant information from the environment
● deterministic vs. stochastic (non-deterministic)
– changes in the environment are predictable
● episodic vs. sequential (non-episodic)
– independent perceiving-acting episodes
● static vs. dynamic
– no changes while the agent is “thinking”
● discrete vs. continuous
– limited number of distinct percepts/actions
● single vs. multiple agents
– interaction and collaboration among agents
– competitive, cooperative
 Outline
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations of Artificial Intelligence

History of Artificial Intelligence, State of the Art

Risks and Benefits of AI

Intelligent Agents, Agents and Environments

Good Behaviour: Concept of Rationality

Structure of Agents

Nature of Environments

Four main approaches

Four main approaches to AI
● Systems that act like humans
● Systems that think like humans
● Systems that think rationally
● Systems that act rationally
Approach #1: Acting Humanly
● AI is: “The art of creating machines that perform
functions that require intelligence when performed
by people” (Kurzweil)
● The overall behavior of the system should be
human like.
● It could be achieved by observation.
● Ultimately to be tested by the Turing Test.
Acting humanly: Turing test
● Turing (1950) "Computing machinery and intelligence“

● "Can machines think?" 🡪 "Can machines behave intelligently?“

● Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

 The Turing Test

In a Turing test, the

interrogator must
determine which
respondent is the
computer and which is
the human

13
-1
00
Approach #2: Thinking Humanly
● AI is: “The automation of activities that we
associate with human thinking, activities such as
decision-making, problem solving, learning…”
(Bellman)
● Goal is to build systems that function internally in
some way similar to human mind.
● Most of the time it is a black box where we are not
clear about our thought process.
● One has to know functioning of brain and its
mechanism for possessing information.
Approach #3: Thinking rationally
● AI is: “The study of the computations that make it
possible to perceive, reason, and act” (Winston)
● Approach firmly grounded in logic i.e., how can
knowledge be represented logically, and how can
a system draw deductions?
● Such systems rely on logic rather than human to
measure correctness.
● For thinking rationally or logically, logic formulas and
theories are used for synthesizing outcomes.
● For example,
– given John is a human and all humans are mortal then
one can conclude logically that John is mortal
Approach #4: Acting rationally
● AI is: “The branch of computer science that is
concerned with the automation of intelligent
behavior” (Luger and Stubblefield)
● An agent is something that perceives and acts

● Rational behavior means doing right thing.

● Even if method is illogical, the observed behavior

must be rational.
MCQ
1. Artificial Intelligence is about_____.

A. Playing a game on Computer

B. Making a machine Intelligent
C. Programming on Machine with your Own Intelligence
D. Putting your intelligence in Machine

Ans: B
MCQ
2. Who is known as the -Father of AI"?

A. Fisher Ada
B. Alan Turing
C. John McCarthy
D. Allen Newell

Ans: C
MCQ
3. Select the most appropriate situation for that a
blind search can be used.

A. Real-life situation
B. Small Search Space
C. Complex game
D. All of the above

Ans: B
MCQ
4. The application/applications of Artificial
Intelligence is/are.

A. Expert Systems
B. Gaming
C. Vision Systems
D. All of the above

Ans: D
MCQ
5. What is the expansion if PEAS in task
environment?

A. Peer, Environment, Actuators, Sense

B. Perceiving, Environment, Actuators, Sensors
C. Performance, Environment, Actuators, Sensors
D. None of the mentioned

Ans: C
MCQ
6. If a robot is able to change its own trajectory as per
the external conditions, then the robot is considered
as the__?

A. Mobile
B. Non-Servo
C. Open Loop
D. Intelligent

Ans: D
MCQ
7. Which of the given language is not commonly used
for AI?

A. LISP
B. PROLOG
C. Python
D. Perl

Ans: D
MCQ
8. A technique that was developed to determine
whether a machine could or could not demonstrate
the artificial intelligence known as the___

A. Boolean Algebra
B. Turing Test
C. Logarithm
D. Algorithm

Ans: B
MCQ
9. What kind of observing environments are present
in artificial intelligence?

A. Partial
B. Fully
C. Learning
D. Both Partial & Fully

Ans: D
MCQ
10. An AI agent perceives and acts upon the
environment using___.

A. Sensors
B. Perceiver
C. Actuators
D. Both A and C

Ans: D
Assignment No-1
Assignment No. 01
Date of Assignment: 18/01/2022
Date of Submission: 30/01/2022
Quest
ion Description Marks

a. Write short note on Agent Types and Agent Program? 05

Que. 1

b. What is Turing Test Approach? 05

a. Write note on Foundations of artificial intelligence 05

Que. 2

b. What is The state of the art? 05

a. What is Learning Agent? 05

Que.3

b. What is Intelligent Agents? 05

Case Study – 10 Marks

Kroger: How this U.S. Retail Giant is using AI and robots to

prepare for the 4th Industrial Revolution