Module – 4 (Induction motor topic)

 Three phase induction motor – constructional features, slip ring and cage types.
Theory of induction motor with constant mutual flux, slip, phasor diagram, expression
for mechanical power and torque, torque-slip characteristics, starting torque, full load
and pull out torque, equivalent circuit.

4. 1
Induction motor was independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla in 1888.
Induction motors are the most widely used a.c. motors. Almost 90% of mechanical power in
industry are provided by polyphase induction motor.
Advantages of induction motor:

i. Simple and rugged in construction. Almost maintenance free.

ii. Absence of commutator : Reducing cost of the machine
iii. Sufficiently high efficiency and good operational characteristics.
iv. Reasonably good operating power factor.
v. Good speed regulation.
vi. Available in fractional HP to MegaWatt range.
vii. Physical size of induction motor is less compared with other motors of the same
rating.
viii. It is a singly energised motor. Ie we need to provide only one supply. One a.c.
supply to the stator. There is no separate field supply required to be provided. The field
is powered from stator by electromagnetic induction.
ix. Works on commonly available supply – ie 3 phase or single phase a.c. supply.
4.2 Constructional features of 3 phase induction motor.
Like any other electrical motor induction motor also have two main parts namely
rotor and stator.
1. Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A
stator winding is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is
given to it.
 2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to
the mechanical load through the shaft.

The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as
1. Squirrel cage rotor,
2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.

Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the three phase induction
motor are classified as:
1. Squirrel cage induction motor.
2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction
motor.
The construction of stator for both the kinds of three phase induction motor remains
the same. The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:
1. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
2. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
3. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its
rotation. In order to overcome this problem we need fan for cooling.
4. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
5. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from 0.4
mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is called air gap.

Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of three main parts :
1. Stator frame,
2. Stator core,
3. Stator winding or field winding.
 Stator Frame

It is the outer most part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is to support
the stator core and the field winding. It acts as a covering and it provide protection and
mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up
of die cast or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor should be very strong
and rigid as the air gap length of three phase induction motor is very small, otherwise rotor will
not remain concentric with stator, which will give rise to unbalanced magnetic pull.

Stator Core

The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the
eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated. These laminated types of structure are made up
of stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form
stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The stamping is generally made up of silicon
steel, which helps to reduce the hysteresis loss occurring in motor.

Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase induction motor carries three
phase windings. This three phase winding is supplied by three phase AC supply. The three
phases of the winding are connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of
starting method is used. The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star-delta stater and
hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is delta connected. The slip ring three phase induction
motor are started by inserting resistances so, the stator winding of slip ring induction motor
can be connected either in star or delta. The winding wound on the stator of three phase
induction motor is also called field winding and when this winding is excited by three phase ac
supply it produces a rotating magnetic field.

4.3 Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

1. Squirrel cage three phase induction motor: The rotor of the squirrel cage three
phase induction motor is cylindrical in shape and have slots on its periphery. The slots
are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown in the
figure of squirrel cadge rotor beside) as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of stator
and rotor teeth and makes the working of motor more smooth and quieter. The squirrel
cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper bras rotor is shown in the
figure beside). These aluminum, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors and
are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are
permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings called the end rings. In order to
provide mechanical strength these rotor conductor are braced to the end ring and
hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as
squirrel cage induction motor. The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As
the bars are permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor resistance is very small and it is
not possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted. The
absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of Squirrel cage three phase
induction motor very simple and robust and hence widely used three phase induction
motor. These motors have the advantage of adapting any number of pole pairs. The
below diagram shows squirrel cage induction rotor having aluminum bars short circuit
by aluminum end rings.

Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor-

1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.
2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less
maintenance.
Applications: Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling machine, fan,
blower printing machines etc
2. Slip ring or wound three phase induction motor : In this type of three phase
induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of poles as that of stator but it
has less number of slots and has less turns per phase of a heavier [Link] rotor
also carries star or delta winding similar to that of stator winding. The rotor consists of
numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these slots. The three end
terminals are connected together to form star connection. As its name indicates three
phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings connected on same shaft as that of
rotor. The three ends of three phase windings are permanently connected to these slip
rings. The external resistance can be easily connected through the brushes and slip rings
and hence used for speed control and improving the starting torque of three phase
induction motor. The brushes are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding.
These brushes are further connected to three phase star connected resistances. At
starting, the resistance are connected in rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the
rotor pick up its speed. When the motor is running the slip ring are shorted by
 connecting a metal collar, which connect all slip ring together and the brushes are also
removed. This reduces wear and tear of the brushes. Due to presence of slip rings and
brushes the rotor construction becomes somewhat complicated therefore it is less used
as compare to squirrel cage induction motor.

Advantages of slip ring induction motor -

1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.
Application: Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e
in hoists, cranes, elevator etc.

Difference between Slip Ring and Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

 Slip ring or phase wound Induction motor Squirrel cage induction motor

 Construction is complicated due to

Construction is very simple
presence of slip ring and brushes

The rotor consists of rotor bars which

 The rotor winding is similar to the stator
are permanently shorted with the help of
winding
end rings
 Since the rotor bars are permanently
 We can easily add rotor resistance by
shorted, its not possible to add external
using slip ring and brushes
resistance

 Due to presence of external resistance Staring torque is low and cannot be

high starting torque can be obtained improved

 Slip ring and brushes are present Slip ring and brushes are absent

 Frequent maintenance is required due to

Less maintenance is required
presence of brushes

 The construction is complicated and the The construction is simple and robust
presence of brushes and slip ring makes and it is cheap as compared to slip ring
the motor more costly induction motor

Due to its simple construction and low

 This motor is rarely used only 10 %
cost. The squirrel cage induction motor is
industry uses slip ring induction motor
widely used

 Rotor copper losses are high and hence Less rotor copper losses and hence
less efficiency high efficiency

 Speed control by rotor resistance method Speed control by rotor resistance

is possible method is not possible

 Slip ring induction motor are used where Squirrel cage induction motor is used
high starting torque is required i.e in in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower
hoists, cranes, elevator etc printing machines etc

4.4 Working Principle of 3 phase induction motor.

Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct a 3
phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase winding are
arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after three
phase AC supply is given to them.
Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel
slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum bars which fits in
each slots & they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to
the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic
humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle of 120°.
When the primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a
rotating magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous speed. Secrets Behind the Rotation:
According to Faraday’s law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding in an induction motor are either
closed through an external resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and cut the stator rotating
magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor copper bar and due to this emf a current flows
through the rotor conductor. Here the relative speed between the rotating flux and static rotor
conductor is the cause of current generation; hence as per Lenz's law the rotor will rotate in the
same direction to reduce the cause i.e. the relative velocity.

Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor it may observed that the
rotor speed should not reach the synchronous speed produced by the stator. If the speeds
equals, there would be no such relative speed, so no emf induced in the rotor, & no current
would be flowing, and therefore no torque would be generated. Consequently the rotor can not
reach the synchronous speed. The difference between the stator (synchronous speed) and
rotor speeds is called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction motor has the
advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to the rotor. Thus the three phase
induction motor is:

 Self-starting.
 Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of
commutators and brushes that may cause sparks.
 Robust in construction.
 Economical.
 Easier to maintain.
 Three phase supply Rotor Rotation
given to stator •The stationary rotor •By Lenz's law the direction of induced current
conductors indces an emf due will be such a way to oppose the cause
•This produces a rotating
to electromagnetic induction producing it.
magnetic flux in the stator
which rotates at principle due to the rotating •Here the cause of production of emf is the
Synchronous speed of flux produed in the stator. synchnrously rotating stator flux and the
Ns = 120f/P • The rotor conductors are relative speed between the rotor conductors.
closed using end rings in •Therefore a torque is developed in the rotor
squirrel cage motors or by slip conductors in the same direction of the
•This rotating flux links with
the stationary rotor ring and resistor rotating magetic field to reduce the relative
arragmement in slip ring I/M. speed.
conductor through the air
gap and induces an emf in •Thus it produces a current in
that by electromagnetic the rotor circuit.
induction

4.5 Slip in an induction motor

When the induction motor starts the rotor will runs in the same direction of the rotating
magnetic field at the a speed less than the synchronous speed. The rotor never attains the
synchronous speed but always runs at a speed less than Ns.
The relative speed between the synchronously rotating field andd the actual speed of the
rotor is called as Slip Speed.
The slip speed is represented as fraction slip speed or percentage slip.

Fraction Slip =

% Slip = × 100

Ns is the synchronous speed = 120f/P (f is frequency of supply, P is

no. of poles of the
machine)
N is the actual speed of the rotor.
At normal load the % slip of induction motor varies between 2 to 5 % and at no load it is as
small as 0.5 %.
Problems
Problem – 1 . Find the % slip of an induction motor with 4 poles and 50 Hz supply when it is
running at 1475 rpm.

Sol : Syn speed Ns = 120f/P = 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 rpm

% slip = ((1500 – 1475)/ 1500) x 100 = 1.6 %

Problem – 2 . Find the % slip of an induction motor with 4 poles and 60 Hz supply when it is
running at 1400 rpm.
Problem – 3 . Find the speed of an induction motor with 4 poles and 60 Hz supply when it is
running at a % slip of 4.
Problem – 4 . Find the % slip of an induction motor with 4 poles and 50 Hz supply when it is
running at 1350 rpm and also when poles is reduced to 2.

Expected questions
1. What are advantages of induction motor?
2. Explain the constructional details of 3 phase induction motor with a neat diagram.
3. Explain the working principle of 3 phase induction motor.
4. Compare squirrel cage and slip ring induction motor.
5. What is slip? What is the maximum and minimum value of slip possible for an IM?
6. Problems from slips:

4.6 Frequency of voltage/current in rotor circuit

When we supply a 3 phase voltage to the stator of the induction motor, there is a production
of a rotating magnetic field rotating at syn. Speed Ns = 120f/P. This rotating flux links with the
rotor conductors and cause an emf induced in it. When the rotor is stationary the frequency of
induced emf will be same as that of the stator frequency, but when the rotor starts rotating
the same direction as that of stator flux, the variation of flux becomes relative and depends on
the slip (Ns – N)/Ns) of the rotor.

The frequency of rotor emf is given by f ' = s × f (where ‘s’ is slip, f is stator supply
frequency)
 4.7 Induced emf in rotor

The induced emf/phase of rotor circuit at standstill is given by E2 = E1× where N1 is the

number of turns in the primary (Stator) winding and N2 is the number of turns in the
secondary. When the rotor is running with a slip ‘s’ the induced emf also varies with the slip
factor. The rotor induced emf when running at a slip s is given by sE2.

4.8 Rotor current and power factor of induction motor

Consider an induction motor with resistance per phase of rotor of R2 and rotor inductance per
phase of L2.

At standstill (ie when rotor is stationary)

Induced emf per phase in the secondary = E2 ( Refer 4.7)

Rotor winding resistance per phase = R2

Rotor reactance per phase X2 = 2ᴨfL2 ( because X = 2ᴨfL)

Rotor winding impedance = +

Rotor current I2 = E2/Z2 = E2/ +

Power factor of the rotor circuit, cos =

At a slip of s

When it is running at a slip of ‘s’ the rotor induced voltage varies to s×E2 and the rotor
frequency and varies to f ` = s×f; where f is the frequency of the supply and E2 is the induced
emf in the rotor at stand still.

Induced emf/phase in rotor winding = sE2

Rotor winding resistance/phase = R2

Rotor reactance per phase = 2ᴨf `L2 = 2ᴨsfL2 = sX2

Therefore rotor impedance at running condition = = +( ) =

 = + ------------------- (1)

Current per phase = ------------------- (2)

Power factor of rotor current cos = ----------(3)

Equation (2) can be rewritten as = ----------------------(4)

Thus according to eq. (4) the rotor equivalent circuit can be drawn as below.

In the above circuit the resistance R2/s is a function of slip and can be splitted into two parts R2
( ) ( )
and where R2 is the rotor resistance and is an imaginary resistance

representing the electrical load on the rotor. Therefore the rotor equivalent circuit can be
redrawn as shown below.

The power consumed by the fictitious resistance representing the electrical load is given by

( − )
4.9 Rotor toque in induction motor

The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors :Firstly
the magnitude of rotor current, secondly the flux which interact with the rotor of three phase induction
motor and is responsible for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor , lastly the power factor
of rotor of the three phase induction motor. Combining all these factors together we get the equation of

torque as -

Where, T is the torque produced by induction motor, φ is flux responsible for producing induced emf, I2
is rotor current, cosθ2 is the power factor of rotor circuit.

The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E1. i.e φ ∝ E1 We know that
transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage) to that of primary

voltage (stator voltage).

Rotor current

Where ,

Putting this value in above equation we get, secondary current as

We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power factor of
the rotor circuit is

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,
 Combining similar term we get,

Removing proportionality constant we get,

Where ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s, ns = Ns / 60. So, finally the equation of torque becomes,

4.10 Equation of Starting Torque of Three Phase Induction Motor

Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor when it is started. We know that at start the
rotor speed, N is zero.

So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the equation
of torque of the three phase induction motor,

The starting torque is also known as standstill torque.

4.11 Maximum Torque Condition for Three Phase Induction Motor

In the equation of torque,

The rotor resistance, rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor remains
constant . The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and remains constant
so the stator emf also remains the constant. The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of rotor emf
to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant then rotor emf also remains constant.

If we want to find the maximum value of some quantity then we have to differentiate that
quantity with respect to some variable parameter and then put it equal to zero. In this case we
have to find the condition for maximum torque so we have to differentiate torque with respect
to some variable quantity which is slip, s in this case as all other parameters in the equation of
torque remains constant. So, for torque to be maximum

Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On

differentiating and after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip Sm
and it is defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance.

NOTE: At starting S = 1, so the maximum starting torque occur when rotor resistance is equal to
rotor reactance. So we can add additional resistance in slip ring induction motors to make R2 =
X2 and to get the maximum starting torque

4.12 Equation of Maximum Torque

The equation of torque is

The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2 Substituting the value of this slip in above equation we
get the maximum value of torque as, unit in Newton-Metre

In order to increase the starting torque, extra resistance should be added to the rotor circuit at start and
cut out gradually as motor speeds up.

Conclusion From the above equation it is concluded that

1. The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill.
2. The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance.
3. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
 4. The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R2. So, by varying the
rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.

Expected questions
1. Derive the expression for torque developed in an induction motor?
2. Derive the condition for maximum running torque in an induction motor.
3. Derive the condition for maximum starting torque of an induction motor.
4. Write the equation for running torque, maximum starting torque of an equation.
5. Why do we add additional resistance in the rotor of slip ring I/M? (to get maximum
starting toque – See the condition for max starting torque)
6. Problems from torque.
7. Factors on which the torque of I/M depends.

4.13 Torque – Slip characteristics of Induction motor

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information about the variation of torque
with the slip. The torque is taken on y axis and slip on x axis. The torque developed in an induction
motor is given by

From the above equation it is clear that;

i. When the machine is at synchronous speed ie when slip ‘s’ is zero torque will be zero.
Therefore the torque slip characteristic starts from the origin with slip and torque equal
to zero.
ii. When the speed is very near to synchronous speed Ns. (ie near to origin) slip is very
low and the value of sX2 is very negligible compared with rotor resistance R2. Therefore
the torque T is proportional to the slip, if rotor resistance is constant. The torque will
be approximately a straight line near synchronous speed.
iii. As the slip is further increased, ie when speed drops with increase in load, the torque
increases, reaches a maximum value when slip s = R2/X2. This maximum torque is called
 breakdown or pullout torque of induction motor. The slip corresponding to breakdown
torque is called breakdown slip sb.
iv. With further increase in slip or decrease in speed due to increase in load beyond the
point of maximum torque, the torque begins to decrease. The result is that the motor
slows down and eventually stops.

Torque Slip characteristics of an induction motor

The speed torques characteristics will be the mirror image of torque slip characteristics.
 Torque Speed characteristics of an induction motor

4.14 Variation of torque slip characteristics with different rotor resistance

The torque developed in an induction motor depends on the rotor resistance. The starting
torque will increase with increase in rotor resistance. So when the rotor resistance is high we
get a higher starting torque for the machine. If we observe the equation for maximum torque
we can see that the value of maximum torque does not depends on the value of rotor
resistance. But the slip at which maximum torque occurs varies. Maximum torque remains
unchanged even if we change rotor resistance R2. The maximum torque occurs when the slip
‘s’ of the motor is R2/X2. Therefore when R2 is increased and X2 is constant the slip at which
maximum torque occurs will increase. Ie maximum torque occurs at lower values of slip when
the rotor resistance is low and will keep on increasing as we increase R2.
Variation of torque slip charac. with different rotor resistance value
 4.15 Variation of starting torque w.r.t. to rotor resistance
In the above section even though it is said that starting torque increases with increase in
rotor resistance it does not increase indefinitely. When the rotor resistance is zero, the rotor
current will be lagging the rotor voltage by 90o and therefore rotor power factor is zero and
the hence torque developed is zero. On the other hand when the rotor resistance is infinite
the rotor current is zero and hence starting torque will be zero. So we can see that starting
torque is zero when rotor resistance R2 is zero as well as when R2 is infinitely large; and there
lies some intermediate maximum value of starting torque. The starting torque is given by the
equation:

And rotor current is given by

I2 = E2/Z2 = E2/ +
Based on the above equation we can plot the variation of rotor current and starting torque
w.r.t. rotor resistance as shown below.
 4.16 Effect of change in supply voltage on torque and slip (Speed)
When the motor is running on load with slip s, then the torque acting on the rotor is given
by

Since the induced emf in the rotor is proportional to applied voltage V, ie EαV the torque
developed can be written as

=
where K’ is another constant.
Since at full load slip s is very small, s2X22 can be neglected compared with R22 and the
torque equation can be re written as

= or TαsV2.

When supply voltage changes the torque under running condition also changes.
 4.17 Ratio of full load torque to maximum torque

= = where sfl is the full load slip, a = R2/X2.

In fact a = smax, where smax is the slip corresponding to maximum torque. Therefore the ratio
of Tfl/Tmax can be written as
2 2
= =
+ +

4.18 Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque

= where a s the ratio R2/X2 where R2 is the rotor resistance, X2 is the standstill

rotor reactance.

4.19 Equivalent circuit of induction motor

Induction motor is a well-known device which works on the principle of transformer. So it is

also called the rotating transformer. That is, when an EMF is supplied to its stator, then as a
result of electromagnetic induction, a voltage is induced in its rotor. So an induction motor is
said to be a transformer with rotating secondary. Here, primary of transformer resembles
stator winding of an induction motor and secondary resembles [Link] induction motor
always runs below the synchronous or full load speed and the relative difference between the
synchronous speed and speed of rotation is known as slip which is denoted by s.

Where, Ns is synchronous speed of rotation which is given by-

Where, f is the frequency of the supply voltage. P is the number of poles of the machine.

Equivalent Circuit

The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameter of the machine such as its
Ohmic losses and also other losses. The losses are modeled just by inductor and resistor. The
copper losses are occurred in the windings so the winding resistance is taken into account. Also,
the winding has inductance for which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance and
also a term called power factor comes into the picture. There are two types of equivalent
circuits in case of a three-phase induction motor-

Exact Equivalent Circuit

Here, R1 is the winding resistance of the stator. X 1 is the inductance of the stator winding. Rc is
the core loss component. XM is the magnetizing reactance of the winding. R2/s is the power of
the rotor, which includes output mechanical power and copper loss of rotor. If we draw the
circuit with referred to the stator then the circuit will look like-

Here all the other parameters are same except- R2’ is the rotor winding resistance with referred
to stator winding. X2’ is the rotor winding inductance with referred to stator winding. R2(1 - s) /
s is the resistance which shows the power which is converted to mechanical power output or
useful power. The power dissipated in that resistor is the useful power output or shaft power.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

The approximate equivalent circuit is drawn just to simplify our calculation by deleting one
node. The shunt branch is shifted towards the primary side. This has been done as the voltage
drop between the stator resistance and inductance is less and there is not much difference
between the supply voltage and the induced voltage. However, this is not appropriate due to
following reasons-

1. The magnetic circuit of induction motor has an air gap so exciting current is larger
compared to transformer so exact equivalent circuit should be used.

2. The rotor and stator inductance is larger in induction motor.

3. In induction motor, we use distributed windings.

This model can be used if approximate analysis has to be done for large motors. For smaller
motors, we cannot use this.