DIGESTIVE SYSTEM II.
Oral Cavity
● Initial site for digestion, taste,
📌 I. Overview of the Digestive speech, and immune defenseThis is
the initial stage of digestion.
System
Components: A. Lining Epithelium:
● Digestive Tract / GI Tract / ● Nonkeratinized stratified
Alimentary Canal: squamous epithelium: Soft palate,
lips, cheeks, floor of mouth.
○ Includes: Oral cavity, Providing flexibility and protection.
esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestines, anus ● Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium: Hard palate, gingiva,
● Associated Glands: dorsum of tongue, offering enhanced
resistance to abrasion.
○ Includes: Salivary glands,
liver, pancreas
B. Tongue and Papillae:
Major Functions: ● Filiform: Most abundant, No taste
buds; for mechanical grip
1. Ingestion (keratinized)
2. Mastication (chewing) ● Fungiform: With taste buds;
mushroom-shaped.
3. Motility (movement) (Non keratinized)
● Foliate: Side of tongue; taste buds
4. Secretion (more in children)
5. Hormone release ● Vallate: Large, dome-shaped; have
Von Ebner’s glands for cleansing
6. Chemical digestion taste buds
7. Absorption
C. Taste Buds:
8. Elimination
● Found on fungiform, foliate, and
vallate papillae
● Cell types: ○ o Alveolar bone: Forms the
socket for the tooth root.
○ Gustatory cells (sensory)
○ Supporting cells (Structural
& metabolic support)
○ Basal cells (stem cells) III. General Structure of the
Digestive Tract
● Innervated by:
1. Mucosa
○ CN VII (facial) – anterior
tongue ● Epithelium (varies by location)
○ CN IX (glossopharyngeal) – ● Lamina propria (loose CT with
posterior tongue blood, vessels, glands, and immune
cells)
○ CN X (vagus) – epiglottis
● Muscularis mucosae (smooth
muscle)
D. Teeth and Periodontium:
● Tooth Structures: 2. Submucosa
○ Enamel - Highly mineralized; ● Dense irregular CT
formed by Ameloblasts;
covers the crown. ● Contains:
○ Dentin - Second Hardest
Tissue; formed by ○ Blood/lymph vessels
odontoblasts.
○ Pulp cavity - Vascular and ○ Meissner’s plexus
innervated connective (secretion control)
tissue,containing sensory
nerves.
3. Muscularis Externa
● Supporting Structures:
● Inner circular and outer longitudinal
smooth muscle
○ Cementum: Covers dentin at
● Responsible for peristalsis and
the root; secreted by
segmentation.
cementoblasts.
○ Periodontal ligament:
● Auerbach’s plexus (controls
Dense fibrous connective
motility)
tissue. Anchoring the tooth to
alveolar bone, allowing for
limited movement and shock
absorption.
4. Adventitia or Serosa
● Adventitia: Retroperitoneal organs; ● Regions:
fibrous connective tissue merging
with surrounding structures. Cardia and Pylorus:
●
o Contain mucous-secreting glands
● Serosa: Intraperitoneal organs for protection against acidic chyme.
(includes mesothelium)
Fundus and Body:
o Possess gastric glands with
several cell types.
IV. Esophagus Gastric Gland Cell Types:
● Lining: Nonkeratinized stratified ● Surface mucous cells: Alkaline
squamous epithelium mucus; line the gastric pits.
● Muscle Types: ● Mucous neck cells: Acidic mucus;
located in gland necks.
○ Upper: Skeletal
● Parietal cells: HCl, intrinsic factor
○ Middle: Mixed (B₁₂ absorption)
○ Lower: Smooth ● Chief cells: Basophilic cells at the
gland base; Pepsinogen → pepsin
● Esophagogastric Junction:
● Enteroendocrine cells: Gastrin,
○ Abrupt epithelial transition serotonin and other hormones
to simple columnar regulating motility and secretion.
epithelium initiating the
gastric mucosa. ● Stem cells: Renewal of epithelium
○ Site for Barrett’s esophagus
risk (metaplasia)
VI. Small Intestine
● Main site for digestion and
absorption
V. Stomach
● Function: Churns food, digests
protein, stores contents
● Divisions: ● Lipids → chylomicrons → lacteals
(lymph)
○ Duodenum: Receives
chyme, bile, and pancreatic
secretions; Brunner’s Nervous Regulation:
glands (alkaline mucus)
● Meissner’s plexus
○ Jejunum: Plicae circulares, (secretions):Submucosal
long villi layer-regulate secretory activity
○ Ileum: Peyer’s patches ● Auerbach’s plexus (motility):
(GALT) Between muscle layers-coordinates
peristalsis
Mucosal Structures:
● Villi: Finger-like projections
increasing absorptive surface. VII. Large Intestine
● Crypts of Lieberkühn: Glands for ● Functions: Water/electrolyte
secretion and stem cells absorption, feces formation
● Parts: Cecum, colon, rectum, anal
Cell Types: canal
● Enterocytes: Absorptive with
microvilli brush border Features:
● Goblet cells: Mucus producing. ● Mucosa: Straight crypts (no villi),
many goblet cells. Lined by
● Paneth cells: Located at crypt columnar absorptive cells and
bases; secrete antibacterial abundant goblet cells.
peptides (lysozyme, defensins)
● Muscularis externa:
● Enteroendocrine cells: Regulate
motility and secretion ○ Inner circular: complete
● Stem cells: Regeneration every 4–5 ○ Outer longitudinal: Teniae
days coli (three bands)
Absorption Pathways:
● Carbs/Proteins → capillaries VIII. Anal Canal
● Epithelial Changes: ○ Secrete mucin
glycoproteins that hydrate
○ Simple columnar → to form mucus, providing
stratified squamous → lubrication and protective
keratinized epidermis coating for the oral and
esophageal mucosa.
● Sphincters: ○ Serous demilunes: Mixed
glands
○ Internal: Smooth muscle
(involuntary)
Types:
○ External: Skeletal muscle
(voluntary; pudendal nerve ● Parotid: Serous, largest, rich in
S2–S4) amylase
● Submandibular: Mixed, mainly
serous. 60-70% of total salivary
volume
IX. Organs Associated ● Sublingual: Smallest of the major
with the Digestive Tract salivary glands. Mostly mucous
Duct System:
1. Salivary Glands
1. Intercalated ducts – cuboidal;
● are compound tubuloalveolar
secrete bicarbonate
exocrine glands
● Function: Produce saliva (moistens,
2. Striated ducts – columnar;
digests, defends)
reabsorb Na⁺, secrete K⁺; display
● Secretory Cells:
basal striation.
○ Serous cells: Spherical or
3. Excretory ducts – transport to oral
oval acini. secrete a watery,
cavity; stratified cuboidal or
enzyme-rich fluid containing
columnar epithelium.
Amylase and antimicrobial
protein.
○ Mucous cells: Organized
into elongated tubules with 2. Pancreas
pale-staining cytoplasm
due to mucin-filled vesicles. ● Retroperitoneal gland with both
exocrine and endocrine
● Exocrine Component (~98%):
○ Serous acini with zymogen 3. Liver
granules
● Functions: Over 500 functions
(metabolic, detox, endocrine,
Digestive Enzymes: exocrine)
● Key functions:
● Trypsinogen →Activated in the
duodenum by enterokinase to o Endocrine: secretion of plasma
trypsin (via enterokinase) proteins (albumin, clotting factors,
complement).
● Amylase (starch)- breakdown starch
into oligosaccharides. o Exocrine: secretion of bile.
● Lipase (triglycerides)- hydrolyzes o Storage: of glycogen, iron, and
triglycerides into fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins (especially
monoglycerides. vitamin A via Ito cells).
● Other: Chymotrypsinogen, o Detoxification: biotransformation
proelastase, carboxypeptidases of drugs and toxins via cytochrome
P450 enzymes
Duct Cells:
Hepatocyte Features:
● Centroacinar cells
(pancreas-specific)- unique to the ● large polygonal, binucleated
pancreas; lie within the acini and
mark the beginning of intercalated ● Abundant smooth and rough ER,
ducts. Mitochondria, Golgi Body
● Secrete bicarbonate (neutralizes ● Store glycogen, iron, vitamins
chyme)
Architecture:
Hormonal Control:
● hepatic lobules with central vein
● Secretin → stimulates bicarbonate
● Portal triads:
● CCK → stimulates enzyme release
○ Portal venule (from GI):
from the hepatic portal vein,
carries nutrient-rich blood
from the gut.
○ Hepatic arteriole: provides
oxygenated blood.
○ Bile ductule: Receives bile Hepatocytes → Bile canaliculi → Canals of
from hepatocytes. Hering → Ductules → Hepatic ducts →
Gallbladder or duodenum
○ Lymphatic vessels: drain
excess fluid [Link] Secretion and Flow
● Bile canaliculi: formed between adjacent
Exchange: hepatocytes; sealed by tight junctions.
● Dual blood supply converges in ● Canaliculi drain into: → Canals of Hering
hepatic sinusoids. → bile ductules → interlobular ducts →
● Blood in sinusoids → capillary-like hepatic ducts.
vessels with fenestrated
endothelium; lacking basement ● Bile flows to gallbladder or directly to the
membrane duodenum via the common bile duct.
● Functions of bile:
● Space of Disse for nutrient
exchange; lies between sinusoidal o Emulsifies fats, aiding digestion.
endothelium.
● Blood flows centripetally towards o Excretes bilirubin, cholesterol, and
the central vein; waste products.
● Blood flows Centrifugally toward
bile ductules. Functions of Bile:
● Emulsify fats
Specialized Cells:
● Excrete waste
● Kupffer cells: Macrophage lineage,
reside in sinusoidal lumen;
Remove senescent RBCs, debris, Gallbladder:
and pathogens.
● A hollow, pear shaped organ on
● Ito cells: Located n the space of the surface of the liver.
dise Store vitamin A, contribute to ● Stores/concentrates bile
fibrosis ● Tall columnar cholangiocytes (no
submucosa)
● Under neural and hormonal control
for coordinated bile release.
4. Biliary Tract & Gallbladder
Cholangiocytes:
Bile Pathway:
● Line the bile ducts from the canals
of hering to the common bile
duct.
● Modify bile, absorb electrolytes
● Involved in biliary regeneration
and transport of bicarbonate.
Bile Secretion Mechanism:
CCK(cholecystokinin) is released from
duodenal I cells.
● CCK (I cells) after fat intake:
○ Contracts the smooth
muscle of gallbladder
○ Relaxes sphincter of Oddi
→ bile enters duodenum
○ Bile then emulsifies dietary
fats into micelles, facilitating
digestion by lipase and
subsequent absorption.