KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PROJECT REPORT

PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS WITH

ELECTRONIC LOAD CONTROLLER

A final year project report submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

Submitted by:
Usha Adhikari (42030)
Sandip Bashyal (42031)
Bikalpa Dhungana (42041)

April 2022
 CERTIFICATION

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

ON
PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS WITH
ELECTRONIC LOAD CONTROLLER

By:
Usha Adhikari (42030)
Sandip Bashyal (42031)
Bikalpa Dhungana (42041)

Approved by:
1. Project Supervisor

___________________ ____________________________ _______

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

2. Head of the Department

___________________ ____________________________ _______

(Signature) (Name) (Date)
 ABSTRACT

The project involves design of Electronic Load Controller (ELC) to be

implemented in micro hydro power plants for parallel operation of synchronous
generators such that both the generators can share load in proportion to their
ratings.

Micro-hydroelectric systems convert the energy of moving water into electric

energy. In rural settings, micro hydroelectric systems operate at full power
throughout to avoid the cost of expensive electromechanical controls. That in turn
causes the generator to produce its maximum rated power. In a Micro hydropower
plant (MHP) system's frequency fluctuates depending on the consumer load. If the
electric energy supply and demand doesn’t match the generator eventually fails.
Likewise, increased load demand of MHP in rural area requires parallel operation
of alternators to supply the demand and make use of the generation to the fullest.
A need of Controller in MHP is seen through different loading pattern. Hardware
design for 1.5 KW synchronous generators (SG) with ELC for isolated load was
developed. In this project the output voltage from the SG was maintained constant at
every load condition for the consumer loads by dissipating the surplus power to the
ballast load that ensured the system’s frequency to be in the permissible range of
49.5-50.5Hz. The use of Pulse width modulation (PWM) was made to decide the
firing angle of the TRIAC according to change in loads by the microcontroller.
Resistive loads were taken into consideration and the system performance was
analyzed based on power, current and voltage profiles were obtained.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our project supervisor Assistant Prof.
Pramish Shrestha and coordinator Dr. Anup Thapa for their helpful comments,
suggestions and guidance throughout the work on this project. We are also grateful to
Mrs. Sunita Thapa and Mr. Uttam Adhikari for their valuable efforts and support to
complete the project within the specified time. Finally, we acknowledge the whole
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering family and express our deep and
sincere gratitude to our family members for their continuous love and support. We extend
our gratitude towards the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, faculties
and staffs for their regular help and support. We expect similar help and support in near
future.

ii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations Full form

MHP Micro hydro plant

ELC Electronic load controller

PWM Pulse with modulation

SG Synchronous generator

Hz Hertz

AC Alternating current

NEA Nepal Electricity Authority

ZCD Zero crossing Detector

DIAC Diode for alternating current

TRIAC Triode for alternating current

A Ampere

DC Direct Current

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IEEE The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

MOSFET Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor

VFC Voltage and frequency controller

IAG Isolated asynchronous generators

IELC Improved electronic load controller

SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1Analysis of frequency and current at different loading conditions........................ 31

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Methodology flow chart ........................................................................................ 4

Figure 2 Graph for ELC output with total generated, dummy load, consumer load power,
frequency [lab experiment] .................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3 DIAC Ac Phase control by triggering TRIAC [18] ............................................ 12
Figure 4 Three Dark Lamps Method [21] .......................................................................... 14
Figure 5 Two Bright, One Dark Lamp Method [21] ......................................................... 15
Figure 6 Synchroscope Method [21] ................................................................................. 16
Figure 7 Block diagram of the synchronization system with ELC .................................... 17
Figure 8 Block diagram for ELC ....................................................................................... 18
Figure 9 ELC flowchart .................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10 Zero Crossing Detector .................................................................................... 20
Figure 11 Power Supply Circuit ........................................................................................ 21
Figure 12 Circuit diagram of ELC ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 13 Circuit diagram for synchronization.................................................................. 24
Figure 14 Graph for zero crossing detection with frequency sensing ............................... 27
Figure 15 0% duty cycle of PWM signal ........................................................................... 28
Figure 16 20 % duty cycle of PWM signal ........................................................................ 29
Figure 17 50% duty cycle of PWM signal ......................................................................... 29
Figure 18 95% duty cycle of PWM signal ......................................................................... 30
Figure 19 Graph of the supply to consumer ...................................................................... 30
Figure 20 Loads Vs Power Vs Frequency curve ............................................................... 32
Figure 21 Droop characteristics analysis ........................................................................... 33
Figure 22 Hardware for the Constant power supply .......................................................... 39
Figure 23 Hardware for zero crossing detectors ................................................................ 39
Figure 24 Overall hardware design .................................................................................... 40
Figure 25 Overall working model setup ............................................................................ 41

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................iii

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. v

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Motivation .................................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Problem Description ................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 3

1.6 Limitations ................................................................................................................. 4

1.7 Organization of Report ............................................................................................... 4

1.8 Summary .................................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 6

2.1 Electronic load controller ........................................................................................... 6

2.2 Research and Literature Survey ................................................................................. 9

2.3 DIAC Ac phase control by triggering TRIAC ......................................................... 11

2.3 Synchronization of alternators ................................................................................. 12

2.4 Techniques of synchronization................................................................................. 13

2.4.1 The Dark Lamp Method .................................................................................... 14

2.4.2 Two Bright, One Dark Method.......................................................................... 14

2.4.3 The Synchroscope Method ................................................................................ 15

2.5 Summary .................................................................................................................. 16

CHAPTER III: PROJECT METHODOLOGY ................................................................. 17

vi
 3.1 System Block Diagram............................................................................................. 17

3.2 Block diagram for ELC ............................................................................................ 18

3.3 ELC Flowchart ......................................................................................................... 19

3.4 Zero Crossing Detector circuit ................................................................................. 20

3.5 Constant Power Supply Unit .................................................................................... 21

3.6 Circuit diagram of ELC ............................................................................................ 22

3.7 Synchronization circuit ............................................................................................ 24

3.7 Selection of Components ......................................................................................... 24

3.7.1 Synchronous generator ...................................................................................... 24

3.7.2 Transformer ....................................................................................................... 25

3.7.3 Microcontroller .................................................................................................. 25

3.7.5 Opto isolator ...................................................................................................... 25

3.7.6 TRIAC ............................................................................................................... 26

3.8 Summary .................................................................................................................. 26

CHAPTER IV: RESULT AND ANALYSIS ................................................................... 27

4.1 Testing of the Zero crossing detector ....................................................................... 27

4.2 Testing of ELC for different load conditions ........................................................... 28

4.3 Analysis of the current and frequency...................................................................... 31

4.4 Loads versus frequency analysis .............................................................................. 32

4.5 Droop characteristics analysis .................................................................................. 33

4.6 ELC sizing ................................................................................................................ 33

4.7 Summary .................................................................................................................. 34

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 35

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 36

APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................... 39

APPENDIX B .................................................................................................................... 42

vii
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Nepal, as a country with the most water resources, has a great potentiality for
hydroelectric power generation. Nepal has the economic potential to generate 42133 MW
from large-scale hydro power and 50 MW from micro-hydro plants, according to
projections from rural energy (2007), but facilities producing only approximately 589.29
MW, according to Nepal electricity authority(NEA) generation directorate 2076 (559.29
MW from large-scale and 30 MW from small-scale hydro projects). [1] NEA estimates
that 80 percent of the Nepalese population is still without power. [2] NEA has a
monopoly market over distribution and transmission of electrical power in Nepal. NEA is
unable to extend its grid-based electricity system because of technological,
environmental, and, most crucially, budgetary constraints. The country's hilly geography
and complicated geology make grid-based energy extension practically impossible. Rural
electrification is a challenge in this scenario.

The construction of micro-hydro plants is one of the NEA's proposed solutions to meet
the energy demand of rural areas inaccessible through national grid due to financial
unfeasibility because of high power loss in transmission line and high-cost investment
required for transmission line. Micro-hydro generation is a low-cost, low-impact power
generation technique that could be a viable option for rural electrification in Nepal. Due
to the higher expense of transmission lines, MHP meets the electrical energy demand in
rural areas that are not accessible by the national grid. As a result, most of the MHP
plants are operated in an isolated manner. MHP is a river-based power plant with no
reservoir at the headrace, and the turbine runs at a constant head and discharge. MHP
designers strive to provide the most cost-effective MHP possible. As a result, Electronic
load controller is utilized instead of an oil pressure governor to save cost on the governor.
An ELC is an electrical device that maintains the synchronous generator's speed
constant over fluctuating load condition. [3] Consumers load are not always static.
Actually they are dynamic in nature. Due to their dynamicity in load consumption, the
frequency of generated voltage will not always runs at 50Hz. Hence, in the hydroelectric
system when the consumers load change the frequency of the voltage generated
fluctuates. The generator is driven by an unregulated turbine with constant power output,
and a dummy ballast load is attached across the generator terminals to dump the surplus

1
power created. The frequency is measured and compared to the reference frequency
range, and the resulting error signal is used to manage the power required by the ballast
load, ensuring that the generator is always operating at maximum capacity, resulting in
constant speed. Frequency variation of ±2% and terminal voltage variation of ±5% from
their nominal rated values are acceptable in MHP scheme. [4]

This project's purpose is to develop a model for alternator synchronization with Electronic
load controller at a MHP. The technique of connecting and operating two or more
alternators in parallel, or connecting one alternator to an endless bus bar, is known as
alternator synchronization. An electrical power generation and transmission system is
made up of a large number of parallel-running alternators connected by transmission lines
and supplying a large number of widely dispersed loads. Power supply continuity,
reliability, expandability, flexibility, and high efficiency are all advantages of parallel
alternator operation. Because a single alternator cannot meet all of the aforementioned
requirements, many alternators are linked in parallel to power large loads. In the
synchronization process, the adjustment of the magnitude of phase voltage, phase angle,
phase sequence and the generating frequency of the incoming alternator is done. When all
the parameters of synchronization are satisfied and synchronized with that of the infinite
bus bar, the incoming machine is connected to the infinite bus which is done using the
electrical contractors. [5]

1.2 Motivation
Micro hydro is established in order to meet the energy demand of places with no NEA
grid supply. It is one of the best possible strategies for rural electrification in a country
such as Nepal rich in water resources. This system requires certain attention of frequency
maintenance as power consumption is reduced to greater extent during day time casing
the frequency of the system to vary. Hence, a governor need be employed but it adds
extra bulk of cost to installation. At that case ELC can reduce the financial overburden.
An ELC can divert surplus power, causing the generator to work on full load. Likewise,
MHP being installed at rural communities, demands simpler methods for frequency
control so ELC can be finest scheme. In addition to this increasing load demand can be
met with synchronization of alternators than a single alternator. Concept of
synchronization helps in the more efficient operation of MHP in terms of cost as well as
required resources. Expansion of national grid expansion has created threats to MHP.
Abandonment of MHP after grid can be reducing by connecting different MHP into mini-

2
grid system. Lastly, the ELC we designed previously using relay module was less
sensitive and didn’t had the facility of synchronization which motivated to design a more
accurate and sensitive system.

1.3 Problem Description

The problem in micro-hydropower system is fluctuation in frequency and voltage
generated by the generator under consumer load variation which causes adverse effect in
various electrical appliances which needs to addressed. ELC is able to mitigate this
problem in MHP. In absence of parallel operation between alternators the whole plant
must shut down for maintenance and inspection for some period of time causing no
supply at the moment. With parallel operation of alternators few alternators can shut
down during light loads and the remaining alternators can operate at near or full load with
greater efficiency. The cost of operation of individual alternator is more expensive than
the parallel operation.

1.4 Objectives
The prime objectives of this research project is to design an ELC

• which maintains the standard frequency of 50Hz by varying the ballast load in
accordance to the consumer load automatically
• Synchronizes the two alternators for the parallel operation.
• Initiates the islanding operation of the alternators during unbalanced condition.

1.5 Methodology
The project is modelled in order to perform synchronization between alternators under the
necessary condition of increased load demand and balance the frequency that changes
with the increase or decrease of main/consumer loads. At first a single generator is
operated with full load and the frequency is maintained by the ELC by dumping the
surplus power to the resistive ballast load. The PWM signal generated by the
microcontroller is used to fire the TRIAC at the moment of zero crossing by varying the
duty cycle. The synchronizing box is designed to operate the two alternators in parallel by
matching the phase, phase sequence, frequency and phase voltage of the primary
alternator with the incoming generator. The model has been designed in Proteus software
as well as in hardware.
Overall operation of the project from the draft is shown in the figure 1.

3
 Project selection initial case study

Literature survey on MHP, ELC and

synchronization of alternators

Design and software simulation of ELC and

synchronizer

Hardware design for the system and testing of ELC

and Synchronization of alternators

Over all hardware design and circuit fabrication

Testing and Analysis

Figure 1 Methodology flow chart

1.6 Limitations
The limitations of the project are as given below:

• The system is modelled for resistive load only.

• Generation of harmonics due to chopping of waveform of current through the

dump load

1.7 Organization of Report

The present report is composed of five chapters:
• Chapter I: Provides general information about the MHP, ELC, and synchronization
Specific purpose of the study of synchronization is discussed in this section.
• Chapter II: An analysis of the technical background of our work including all the
necessary equations, models, and formulae used significantly during the period of
design of synchronization with ELC.

4
 • Chapter III: A look at the step-by-step activity involved in the design PWM based
ELC and synchronization technique, which major includes block-diagram,
flowchart and circuit diagrams.
• Chapter IV: An analysis of the system circuit, performance through the graph result
obtained from the simulation and output observed during the hardware testing.
• Chapter V: This section summarizes the overall motive of the project and tallies the
project objective with the system results.

1.8 Summary
In this chapter the general brief of the study has been presented. The motive of the project
along with its importance and value has been highlighted. A MHP is a low cost, simpler
mechanism adopted for rural electrification that demands less complex controls. The
problem of fluctuating frequency with the varying load conditions is regulated by using
an ELC. An ELC dumps the surplus power to the ballast load maintaining the constant
speed of the generator as well as adjusting the frequency in the permissible range of 49.5-
50.5 Hz that doesn’t affect the consumer loads. The increasing demand of the power by
the consumers is met by the increased generations from the MHP. But rather that
replacing with a new larger generating plant synchronization of alternators can provide
flexibility with changing loads demands. Synchronization is a more reliable method
which allows continuity of power even in the case of failure of one or two alternators and
provides space for shut down of some alternators at low load conditions allowing rest
alternators to operate at full load. Use of both, ELC and synchronization technique in a
MHP adds to the more efficient, reliable, economic operation of a MHP.

5
 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Electronic load controller

An electronic governor that acts as a frequency and voltage regulator for a generator is
known as an electronic load controller. Load control is appropriate for a river-based
micro hydro power plant (without a dam). An ELC is a solid-state electronic device
that regulates the power output of a micro-hydropower system while keeping the load
torque on the turbine constant. [6] In order to keep the overall load on the generator and
turbine constant, the controller accommodates for variations in the primary load by
automatically changing the amount of power dissipated in a resistive load, commonly
known as the ballast load. In most cases, water heaters are employed as a ballast load.

When the system loads changes, the frequency tends to shift. In order to keep the
frequency constant, the conventional speed governing system regulates the input water
supply to the hydraulic turbine. But in ELC, corresponding to reduction in system load,
additional dummy loads are introduced to the system without making any changes in
prime mover output so that sum of consumer’s load and dummy load is always equal
to power out of turbine resulting in constant speed and frequency operation. The ELC
available in the common market are commonly designed with the analog circuits. This
makes the ELC board bulky and during problem occurrence the troubleshooting
process becomes very complicated.

It is a common practice to install an electronic load controller to control the speed of an

MHP generator rather than a classical oil pressure mechanical speed governor. The
conventional governor is prohibitively expensive for limited power plants such as
MHP. When the load on the consumer drops, the ballast power boosts up by the same
amount, ensuring that total power on the generator stays constant and thus speed
remains unchanged. There are numerous advantages using an electronic load controller.
[7]

• ELC allows for the employment of a simpler, less expensive turbine with fewer
moving parts.

• ELC allows for a lighter, less robust penstock and reduces machinery wear and
tear.

6
 • ELCs can be installed at any point in an electrical system and are extremely
dependable, low-maintenance, and easy to use.

• ELC is less expensive than equivalent flow control governor.

Principle Operation of ELC

Output curve
1000 60
900
50
800

FREQUENCY IN HERTZ
700
40
600
POWER IN WATT

500 30
400
20
300
200
10
100
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

LOAD IN AMPERE
TOTAL GENERATED POWER POWER CONSUMED BY CONSUMER
POWER TO DUMMY LOAD FREQUENCY

Figure 2 Graph for ELC output with total generated, dummy load, consumer load power, frequency [lab
experiment]

A three-phase star-connected generator powered by a micro hydro turbine and an ELC

make up the Synchronous generator ELC system [4]. The output power of a
synchronous generator is maintained constant with fluctuating consumer loads since
the input power is almost constant. The excess power from the consumer load is
dumped into a dump load through the ELC. As a result, the synchronous generator
feeds two loads simultaneously, ensuring that the total power remains constant. The
graph of the ELC operation to maintain the frequency is shown in figure 2. It is given
as

PG = PC + PD …………………………………………………… (i)

Where,
PG = Generated power of the generator (which should be kept constant)

7
PC = Consumer load power, and
PD = Dummy load power

The main type of ELC designs that are prevalent are [8]:

• Binary load regulation

• Phase angle regulation
• Pulse width regulation
• Controlled bridge rectifier
• Uncontrolled bridge rectifier

1. Binary load regulation

In binary load regulation the ballast load is made up of binary arrangement of separate
resistive loads that are switched together. A switching selection is performed in response
to a change in the consumer load to communicate the appropriate combination of load
steps. This switching operation occurs during the transient period only, thereafter full
system voltage is applied to the new fraction of the ballast load and hence harmonics are
not produced by this method in the steady-state. Furthermore, solid-state switching relays
with a zero-voltage switching circuit that decreases the harmonic distortion inherent with
the transient switching period are commonly implemented. Costs of Solid State relay are
far higher than the TRIAC because each of them contains steering electronics The range
of dump loads and associated wiring is large, and these dump loads must all have the
same capacity to enable smooth control. With a small number of dump loads, the system
cannot regulate smoothly since the steps between dump configurations remain too large.
[8]

2. Phase angle regulation

Phase angle control is a method of power limiting with the help of power electronic
devices such as Thyristors and TRIAC where the gate signals of these devices are
controlled by a PWM signal. The duty cycle variation of the PWM signal varies the
phase angle control of the AC voltage. This control of the voltage in turn limits the power
through the device. [9]

3. Pulse width regulation

In pulse width regulation, AC voltage is first rectified and dump load is switched on and
off with a variable duty cycle. Duty cycle is the ratio of switch on time of a cycle to the

8
time for a cycle. Control is done by varying the on-time of a cycle when the time of a
cycle is constant for fixed frequency. PWM control can have fast response and compared
to other schemes they usually have very smooth speed control, but the transistor
switching losses is really noticeable and significant in high frequency. Power insulated
gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) or metal oxides semiconductor field effect transistors
(MOSFET) should be used in this control method. [10]

4. Controlled bridge rectifier

In control bridge rectifier, AC voltage isn’t only rectified to dc voltage but also controlled
to variable DC output voltage whose magnitude is varied by phase controlled so a
controlled bridge rectifier involves both conversion and control of electrical power. To
achieve both conversion and control of electrical power, silicon controlled rectifier which
are also called Thyristors are used in power circuit is the power electronic device. To turn
SCR on, gate pulse must be provided to the gate of SCR .To achieve the dump load
control, the rectifier output voltage is controlled by varying the delaying time of gate
pulse called delayed angle (α) As phase angle regulation, This technique introduces
harmonics onto the electrical system. Moreover the timing accuracy of triggering pulses
is very complex and limits the effectiveness of the system. [11]

5. Uncontrolled bridge rectifier with a chopper

In uncontrolled bridge rectifier with the chopper, AC voltage is first rectified to dc
voltage and then chopper controls two variable dc voltages by varying chopper duty
cycle. It is very similar to pulse with regulation method except the chopper design but it
has two control methods such as pulse width modulation and pulse frequency modulation.
In pulse frequency modulation, the time of a cycle must be varied for frequency
modulation when the switch on time is constant. [12]

2.2 Research and Literature Survey

Concept of ELC has been developed from a long time back. Many research and designs
have been done created for ELC. Still new ideas and model are created time and again
by various authors with increasing reliability, robustness and cost effectiveness. In July
1984, Kormilo and Robinson described the role of electronic load controllers in
reducing the cost of small hydro schemes with particular reference to the situation in
Papua New Guinea [13].

9
In July 2008, Singh, Kasal, Chandra, and Haddad proposed an investigation on a voltage
and frequency controller (VFC), which functions as an improved electronic load
controller (IELC) for parallel operated isolated asynchronous generators (IAGs) in an
autonomous micro hydro power generation system. In such type of micro hydro scheme
whole generating system is isolated from the grid and supply electricity to the remote
communities. The single point operation of these generators is realized; in such a manner
that excitation capacitors, speeds, voltage, currents of generators remain constant under
various operating loads conditions. The proposed controller consists of a 3-leg IGBT
(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) based voltage source converter (VSC) and a DC
chopper with an auxiliary load at the DC bus of the VSC. The IELC controls the reactive
and active power simultaneously for controlling the voltage and frequency under varying
consumer loads. Along with voltage and frequency control through single point operation
of IAGs driven by uncontrolled micro hydro turbines, the IELC meets the power quality
standard an IEEE-519 and it keeps the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the terminal
voltage and generator currents within the limit of 5%. Proposed electrical system along
with its controller is modelled in MATLAB along with Simulink and PSB (Power System
Block-set) toolboxes. [14]

In 2013, Roodsari, Nowiki and Freere described a new concept of distributed electronic
load controller for voltage regulation in micro hydro systems with transfer of excess
power to households. Instead of dumping excess power at the generating station itself on
heaters the authors proposed a new concept of decentralizing the excess power to each
and every household. Each household would be allocated certain power and the excess
power from each household would be used on the same house as water heater. [15]

In December 2009, Singh, and Rajagopal developed an integrated electronic load

controller (IELC) for an isolated asynchronous generator (IAG), used in constant power
Pico hydro power generation for feeding three-phase four-wire loads. The IELC is
realized using a star/delta transformer and three-leg insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs) -based current controlled voltage source converter (VSC) with a DC capacitor, a
chopper switch and an auxiliary load. The proposed IELC is used to control the voltage
and frequency of IAG in integrated manner. The proposed IELC with the generating
system is modeled and simulated in MATLAB along with Simulink and simpower system
(SPS) toolboxes. The simulated results are presented for the IAG with IELC for feeding

10
three-phase four-wire linear/nonlinear (balanced/unbalanced) loads with the neutral
current compensation to demonstrate its performance. [16]

In November 2017 S. Timilsina and Prof. Dr. I. Tamrakar proposed scheme of Parallel
Operation of MHP Plants with ACVC-ELC and Discrete-ELC with MHP-1 (31.3kW SG-
1 with local D-ELC) and MHP-2(16kW SG-2 with local ACVC-ELC) operating in
parallel via a bus coupler switch. Both MHP plants have their respective local loads. A
Bus coupler is used to form a grid connection between those two MHP plants controlled
by a synchronization block. A common central D-ELC was proposed for speed control of
parallel operated MHP-1 and MHP-2 with their respective ELCs in Off-mode. When the
two MHPs are synchronized by closing bus coupler CB-5, respective local ELCs are
disabled and common D-ELC governs the entire system. While the bus coupler is OFF,
the CB-6 shall be opened making common D-ELC in off-mode and consequently the
local ELCs shall be activated to run the two MHPs in isolated mode. The synchronization
block does the function of synchronizing the two MHP plants and coordinating the
command signal to the bus coupler and other three phase switches. [17]

2.3 DIAC Ac phase control by triggering TRIAC

DIAC is used to control Ac phase by triggering TRIAC through phase control technique.
In the first positive half cycle of the AC wave capacitor is charged through positive
polarity or clockwise direction. As soon as the charging voltage of the capacitor reaches
the break over voltage of the DIAC, it starts to conduct by the discharge through it. The
discharge generates a burst of current that is fed to the gate of the TRIAC that fires the
TRIAC into conduction. The TRIAC then conducts for the rest of the mains half cycle
before turning off when the mains voltage reaches zero. The supply voltage drops to zero
at the end of the half cycle, lowering the current through the TRIAC below its holding
current, turning it and the DIAC stops conduction. The supply voltage enters the next
(negative) half cycle where the capacitor voltage rise charging it but in opposite polarity
and the DIAC conducts again producing an adequate trigger pulse to turn on the TRIAC.
[18]

In the control circuit having a variable resistance value, the magnitude of phase delay of
the wave form across the capacitor can be adjusted. It allows the time at which the
TRIAC fires to be controlled throughout each half cycle. The quantity of power given to
the load can be altered in this way.

11
 Figure 3 DIAC Ac Phase control by triggering TRIAC [18]

2.3 Synchronization of alternators

In a MHP generators should be removed or disconnected from service due to several
factors such as variations in load, maintenance, inspection and emergency outages.
Each time that a generator is connected to a power system, it must be synchronized
with it before the interconnecting breaker can be closed.

Synchronizing, in its simplest form, is the process of electrically connecting and

matching number of generators to each other for the purpose of load sharing.
Synchronizing is the act of matching the voltage magnitude, phase angle, phase
sequence and frequency of the first generator to the second generator values.
Synchronization can be better described with the equation (ii). We consider the
function of the volt component supplied by any generator, which is as follows:

Vk = Acos(ωmt+θm)……………………………………………………..………….(ii)
Where,
• Vk is the voltage of Mth generator
• ωm is the angular frequency Mth generator
• θm is the phase angle Mth generator
Let the voltage of the 1st generator is A1 cos(ω1t+θ1), and
The voltage of the 2nd generator is A2 cos(ω2t + θ2) ,
then, if we connect the two generators in one bus, the voltage components of each must
be equal as mentioned in the definition above, this implies that:
A1cos(ω1t + θ1)= A2 cos(ω2t + θ2) ……..……………………………………….(iii)
From equation (ii), we get
A1 = A2…………………………………………………………………………..…..(iv)

12
ω1 = ω2…………………………………………………………………………..…...(v)
θ1=θ2…………………………………………………………………………….....(vi)

Advantages of Synchronization
There are number of benefits that are given below when we run alternators in parallel.
• Using several generators in parallel can supply a bigger load demand.
• Reliability of the system is increased as failure of one generator doesn’t cause
the whole system to shut down and other are used for the operation.
• Having many generators that are working in parallel any one or more generator
can be removed for the maintenance purpose.
• It facilitates the addition of generators in case of increased load demand.
• Instead of placing generators at different locations it is better to place all of
them at one place it will ease the maintenance.
• Standby losses and per unit price is reduced as demand and supply are in
balance.[19]

Condition for synchronization

It has been determined that the following conditions must be met for alternators to
operate in parallel, based on all the research done. [5] They are as follows:-
• The phase sequence of the Busbar voltages and the incoming machine voltage
must be the same.
• The Busbar voltages and the incoming machine terminal voltage must be in
phase.
• The terminal voltage of the incoming machine and the alternator which is to be
connected in parallel or with the Busbar voltage should be equal.
• The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine and the
frequency of the voltage of the Busbar should be equal.

2.4 Techniques of synchronization

There are different techniques available for the synchronization of alternators. The
primary purpose of these techniques is to check all four conditions mentioned above. The
common methods used for synchronizing the alternators are given below. [20]

13
2.4.1 The Dark Lamp Method
In the three-dark method for synchronization of two three-phase generators depending on
the difference of two generators frequency rate the three lamps glows and go out together.
If the Generators are not linked in the correct phase order and out of phase, then
depending on the difference of two generators frequency rate the three lamps glows and
go out but not in unison. For proper phase sequence it is needed to exchange any two
leads to generator G1. Until all lamps glows and go out in unison, the generators are not
paralleled. The lamp technique has better simplicity of process. [21]

L To Load
L L

Lamps
G1 G1

Figure 4 Three Dark Lamps Method [21]

2.4.2 Two Bright, One Dark Method

In this technique, Generators are connected then any of two synchronizing lamps
connection makes crossed. After this proper phase sequence of generators are to be
checked. Figure below shows the connections for the proper phase sequence by the three
dark techniques. For generator synchronization by two bright, one dark method, and
necessary lamps connections are shown in figure 2. In this method, if lamp-1, lamp-2
becomes bright and lamp-3 becomes dark then generators get synchronized. The
synchronizing instant is when out of three lamps one lamp is blowing dim and other two
are brighter. At this exact instant synchronizing switch can be closed. So, it is very easy
to operator to decide when to close the synchronizing switch by observing the sequence
of synchronizing lamps light. For knowing the speed of generator (i.e., too slow or too
fast) which is to be synchronized is decided by observing the sequence of bright lamp.
[21].

14
 Figure 5 Two Bright, One Dark Lamp Method [21]

2.4.3 The Synchroscope Method

In this method exact instant to closing synchronizing switch is determined by a
synchroscope device. A pointer rotates on the dial in synchroscope. When the generator is
running slower then pointer rotation direction is anticlockwise and when generator is
running faster, then pointer rotation direction is clockwise. At the point, pointer of
synchroscope is exact straight upwards it is correct movement of closing the switch of
synchronization. In lamps method synchronization effectiveness generally depends on
operator experience, decision and skill. The three-lamp technique is easy and cost
efficient but, in this method, it cannot provide information about frequency i.e., it is
higher or lower for synchronizing generators. So, for this purpose synchroscope device
used which informs about incoming generators frequency whether it is lower or higher.
For big voltage systems, lamp technique cannot be used so generally synchroscope
technique is preferred. [21]

15
 Figure 6 Synchroscope Method [21]

2.5 Summary
Over time various load controller technique has been developed and implemented.
Different analysis and hardware implementation has been carried out and the require
output was obtained each time new analysis has been done and the dump load power has
been used for different useful works like water heater. The brief of working mechanism
of ELC is studied. Similarly for the synchronization process different prevailing
techniques were studied thoroughly along with the advantages and required conditions
for successful synchronization. Our project is based efficient rural electrification by MHP
to the places with no NEA reach so if there is a power deficient in an active power supply
system on increment of load at real time then there is need of paralleling the generator to
meet the required power. Thus, for this purpose synchronization is mandatory. Alongside
varying frequency is to be maintained in the permissible range so ELC is a most that
diverts the surplus power to the ballast load facilitating the alternator to work at full load.

16
 CHAPTER III: PROJECT METHODOLOGY

In this section, the implementation of the project has been discussed with the block
diagrams, flowchart and circuit diagrams.

3.1 System Block Diagram

Figure 7 Block diagram of the synchronization system with ELC

The figure 7 shown is the model designed for the parallel operation of alternators with
ELC in a MHP. In the figure prime mover 1 and prime mover 2 rotate the synchronous
generators SG1 and SG2 respectively. Until the consumer load demand is met by single
alternator (SG1) another alternator remains at rest. The power output is fed to Busbar and
supplied to the consumers by maintaining the frequency in the range of 49.5-50.5 Hz.
ELC installed in the system dumps the surplus power to the resistive ballast load during
the process.

As soon as the consumer load exceeds the output from primary SG1 i.e. 1.5 KW the
power flow to common Busbar occurs after synchronization with the incoming generator
SG2. Prime mover 2 is activated that rotates synchronous generator SG2. In the
synchronizer unit the phase voltage, frequency, phase sequence of the incoming generator
is matched with that of the primary generating unit using 2 bright, 1 dark method. After
the successful synchronization contractor is powered and the synchronized power is
delivered to the common Busbar then to the consumer load. Either of the alternators SG1

17
and SG2 can be designated as primary alternator and supply the consumer load.

3.2 Block diagram for ELC

Figure 8 Block diagram for ELC

The figure 8 shown is the block diagram representation of the model designed for the
ELC system. As described in the figure, current and frequency of the 3-phase output
from the synchronous generator is measured using current sensors and frequency sensor.
The frequency sensor detects the zero crossing of the AC wave. The values are fed into
the microcontroller (ATMEGA328) for the processing according to the program. A
constant DC voltage supply is also provided to the microcontroller. PWM signal is
generated by the microcontroller and given to combined circuit of Opto coupler and Diac.
This combination is used as a protective section for microcontroller. The PWM signal is
inverted through a NOT gate and given to the TRIAC for firing by varying its duty cycle
according to the changing load values in the consumer side. According the angle fired the
ballast load is operated. The consumer load is supplied from the main alternator along
with contractor until the case that it doesn’t exceed the demand than supplied to it.

18
At normal load conditions the system runs at the frequency of near about 50 Hz. But due
to the changing values of load conditions frequency varies. At that case ELC works as a
frequency stabilizer by diverting the surplus power to the ballast load maintaining the
power output of the generator constant.

3.3 ELC Flowchart

Figure 9 ELC flowchart

19
The flowchart of the main software program coded into the microcontroller for the
operation of ELC is shown in figure 9. As shown in the flowchart frequency and current
of each phase is determined as ‘f’ and ‘Io, I1, I2’ respectively when the measured
frequency value doesn’t meet the assigned range of 49.5<f<50.5 the program proceeds
forward to compare the current values. The imbalance current values is compared with
one another and the value of the dummy load is increased by 10% by varying the duty
cycle for the respective phase when the frequency value more than 50.5 and dummy load
is decreased by 10% by varying the duty cycle for the respective phase when the
frequency value less than 49.5 .5 till the frequency is stabilized to the permissible range.

3.4 Zero Crossing Detector circuit

Figure 10 Zero Crossing Detector

Zero cross detector is used to convert sinusoidal signal to square signal. ZCD operates
with the principle that when input sinusoidal signal passes the zero reference the output
becomes high before passing zero the output is low. So, sine wave is converted into
square wave. In this project, zero crossing detector circuit is used to count the frequency
of the alternator and detect the points of zero crossing. The input voltage of 220V AC is
stepped down using 6-0-6 transformer. The output of 6V AC from the transformer is fed
to pin 1 of opto coupler through a diode in forward condition. AC ground is given to pin 2
of opto coupler. Opto coupler generates the pulse. Pin-4 and 5 of opto coupler are the pin
of transistor i.e., emitter and collector respectively pin-4 is grounded and 5V DC is given
to pin 5 through resistor. Output from pin 5 of MCT2 is given as input to the Arduino for
frequency sensing at interrupt pin. Arduino uses the pulseIn () command to measure the
time duration of positive level or negative level of the square wave. Therefore frequency
is determined, as f=1/T.

20
3.5 Constant Power Supply Unit

Figure 11 Power Supply Circuit

DC source is not easily available and if available there is not more time availability of
continuity and at a time it is necessary to recharge. So AC to DC conversion makes the
great stability of power supply and eliminates the need to charge again. So, it is more
usable and more availability of voltage and current than battery. The constant power
supply unit functions as follows

1. Firstly, 220 voltage is stepped down to 6V using a 6-0-6 step-down transformer.

2. After that Rectifying the signal, Rectifiers (IC 7805 and IC 7812) are used to rectifying
the signal i.e., convert the AC signal to DC.

3. The third step is to filter the signal. After rectifying the signal, it consists ripple noise in
DC signal that is not perfectly suitable for operate the circuit. Capacitor (1500µf and
2500µf) are used to filter the signal for 5V and 12V DC.

4. The fourth step is the Regulation; Regulation makes the signal more stable to provide
the circuit constant supply. Two regulators (IC L7812 and IC L7805) are used to the 12V
and 5V constant signal respectively.

21
3.6 Circuit diagram of ELC

Figure 12 Circuit diagram of ELC

22
The circuit shown in figure 12 is the complete circuit for the operation of the ELC
designed in Proteus software. In the circuit the alternator runs at its rated speed. 4 pole
MCB is provided for the protection of each phase of the system. Three step down
transformers (6-0-6) steps down the generated voltages to 6V for the operation of zero
crossing detector circuits of each phase. The output is connected to the diode that is
forward biased then to the opto coupler. The opto coupler generates pulse output through
transistor then sent to the interrupt pin 2,3,18 of the Arduino after zero cross detection for
frequency sensing. The Arduino has been programmed to generate PWM signal of double
magnitude of the generated frequency of the alternator. Three current sensor of 30A are
connected to the 3 phase supply to measure the current values Io, I1, I2 and the measured
values are given to the Arduino pins A3, A4, A5 respectively. The contractor used in the
system supplies power to the consumer only if the frequency of the generated output is in
the range of 46-54 Hz as this range can be stabilized to the permissible range 49.5-50.5 by
the dummy load. Contractor is operated after the output Arduino signal from pin 4 passed
through relay driver of 5V. The transistor amplifies the output and closes the normally
open terminal and activates the contractor.
Dummy R, Dummy Y, Dummy B are the control signal from the Arduino pin 11, 12, 13
to the NOT gate and its inverse value passes to TRIAC through opto-isolator IC
MOC3021. The PWM signal generated is initially high so the inverse value from NOT
gate facilitates the chopping of the power at the end terminal of the half cycle omitting the
problem of TRIAC at on state throughout. According to this signal controlled power is
delivered to the dummy load.

23
3.7 Synchronization circuit

Figure 13 Circuit diagram for synchronization

In the circuit two alternators are synchronized with each other and operated in parallel. At
the condition the load demand exceeds the generation of primary alternator, the incoming
alternator is operated. The voltages of both the alternators are checked using the voltmeter
and matched to one another by varying the field current. The phase sequence is matched
manually by the analyzing the operation of indicators. The frequency of the incoming
alternator (Fi) to be synchronized is matched to that of the primary (Fp) and is determined
by the speed and direction of blinking of the 3 phase indicators. At the case of Fi> Fp the
indicators blink faster in anticlockwise direction and in the case Fi><Fp the indicators
blink slower in clockwise direction. At the instant the indicator associated with the Y-
phase turns dark and rest 2 bright the synchronizing switch is pressed that activates the
contractor and the synchronization is done.

3.7 Selection of Components

The components selected to carry out the overall project is described in this section.
3.7.1 Synchronous generator
The synchronous generator, often known as an alternator, is electrical equipment that
converts mechanical energy from a prime mover into alternating current at a specific
voltage and frequency. The synchronous machine always runs at synchronous speed,
which is the rotational speed of the magnetic field formed by the field coils. N is the
24
synchronous speed expressed in rotations per minute, given by
120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑝
Where,
f is the frequency in Hertz (Hz) and
P is the number of poles in the machine
Thus, for a 4-pole synchronous generator to generate power at 50 Hz, its speed of rotation
must be 1500 rpm. On the other hand, a 4-pole synchronous motor operating from a 50-
Hz source runs at 1500 rpm.

3.7.2 Transformer
Transformer is a device that is used to step up or step down the voltage signal or
current signal. For this project, we use step down transformer to step down the voltage
from self-excited synchronous alternator. This step-down voltage signal is further fed
to zero cross detector (ZCD).

3.7.3 Microcontroller
It is used for analyzing the output of measuring unit and measured value is used to
generate PWM the generated PWM is again used to chop off the surplus power to the
ballast load by varying its duty load. The microcontroller used is ATMEGA328 PU.
The microcontroller is programmed through the Arduino IDE platform. AT mega 328
is a low power 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computing) architecture with 131 powerful instructions. Most of the
instructions execute in single clock cycle execution. AT mega 328 have 32 KB
programmable flash memory, static RAM of 1 KB and EEPROM of 1K.

3.7.4 Current Sensor

A current sensor is a device that detects and converts current to an easily measured output
voltage, which is proportional to the current through the measured path. When current
flows through a wire or in a circuit, voltage drop occurs. Also, a magnetic field is
generated surrounding the current carrying conductor.

3.7.5 Opto isolator

The MOC3021 is a Zero-Crossing TRIAC driven opto-isolator. Opto-isolator makes
use of light to indirectly couple sets of circuits. The specialty of MOC3021 is that it has
zero crossing ability and is driven by a TRIAC. Since the output is driven by a TRIAC,

25
loads up to 400V can be driven and the TRIAC can conduct in both directions hence
controlling AC loads is also not a problem. When the AC load is switched on for the
dummy load first time the TRIAC starts conducting only after the AC wave reaches 5V
and the period can be varied by using PWM signal and it can also be used for
preventing microcontroller from getting damaged when there is fault in AC sources. It
also has a decent rise and fall time and hence can be used to control the output voltage.
The MOC3021 is used in our project to switch dummy loads by using PWM signals to
switch the LED of opto-isolator and thus the TRIAC. When TRIAC is switched on
using PWM signals, the output power across the dummy load can be controlled thus
controlling the frequency of alternator though there is variation of power consumption
in consumer side.

3.7.6 TRIAC
A TRIAC is a three terminal electronic element that conducts current in either direction
when triggered. They are able to switch high voltages and high levels of current, over
both halves of an AC waveform. This makes TRIAC circuits ideal for use in a variety
of applications where power switching is needed. In this project TRIAC has been used
to chop the AC waveform on both halves with the provided PWM signal of two times
magnitude of the actual frequency by varying its duty cycle at zero crossing points.

3.8 Summary
This section includes the methodologies that we followed to meet our objectives. . The
flowcharts and block diagram explanation is included. The main backbone i.e.,
frequency sensor, ELC circuit, synchronizing circuit for the project have been
designed, simulated and assembled the outputs are satisfactory and those circuits can be
used to make the synchronizer with ELC. The frequency sensor can be used to sense
the frequency and detect the zero crossing point. The two generators can be parallelized
as per the synchronization conditions are met and the ELC maintains the frequency
within the range of 49.5-50.5Hz in every changing load conditions in the consumer
side.

26
 CHAPTER IV: RESULT AND ANALYSIS
As per stated problems in the problem description the change in the frequency of the
generated output with the varying load condition of the consumer can cause damage to
the connected electrical appliances. So, ELC is implemented in order maintain the output
of the alternators constant (dummy load +Consumer load=Constant) and balance the
frequency by diverting the surplus power to the ballast load for any consumer load
conditions. The synchronizing system is employed for the parallel operation of alternators
in an MHP.
Both the simulation and the hardware circuit were designed and tested. Circuit simulation
was done in Proteus and modelled in hardware. The system uses Arduino Mega as
microcontroller and the code for the system operation was written in C language. The
system designed was able to maintain the frequency of the alternator output in the varying
loads in consumer side and syncronize with incoming alternators where the primary
alternator was not able to fulfill the load demand alone. Syncronous generator was used
as power source and DC motor was used as prime mover. The various resistive loads
were used for the performance analysis. Oscilloscope was used to observe the various
waveforms acrss the dump load.

4.1 Testing of the Zero crossing detector

Figure 14 Graph for zero crossing detection with frequency sensing

27
The zero crossing detectors were implemented using circuit shown in figure 10 for R-
phase and similar is designed for Y and B phase as well. The result of the ZCD circuit of
a phase (R) is shown in graph at figure 14. The circuit detected the zero crossed point of
the sine wave and the PWM signal is generated at each changing state and the frequency
of the generated output of the alternator is measured by taking time difference of the two
consecutive rising states.

4.2 Testing of ELC for different load conditions

Figure 15 0% duty cycle of PWM signal

Originally, PWM signal of 5% of duty cycle for the correction of error was provided. So,
as seen in the graph in figure 15, 5% of generated power chopped and is passed to the
dummy load even at the initial condition. In a complete cycle of the AC wave two zero
crossing occurs so PWM signal of the twice magnitude chops off the AC wave in the both
half cycles.

28
 Figure 16 20 % duty cycle of PWM signal

At the case of 80% generated power utilization by the consumer side 20% PWM signal is
generated chopping 20% of the AC to the dummy load after the zero crossing detection of
each half cycle as shown in figure 16.

Figure 17 50% duty cycle of PWM signal

29
At the case of half of the generated power utilization by the consumer side 50% PWM
signal is generated chopping 50% of the AC to the dummy load after the zero crossing
detection of each half cycle as shown in figure 17.

Figure 18 95% duty cycle of PWM signal

The load in the dummy side is increased up to 95% of the full load because of the 5%
error correction. So, here in this graph of figure 18, only 95% of full load is supplied to
the dummy load when the consumer is not using power at all.

Figure 19 Graph of the supply to consumer

30
The graph shown in figure 19 is the AC sine wave supplied to the consumer after the
chopping of wave for the supply to the dummy load. As seen in figure 19 the constant
chopping of the waveform produces harmonic distortion in the supply.

4.3 Analysis of the current and frequency

Table 1Analysis of frequency and current at different loading conditions

Power consumption Power delivered to Frequency Current in each phase

by the consumers in dummy load in (Hz) (A)
each phase (%) each phase (%)

R Y B R B Y R Y B
90 90 90 10 10 10 50.51 2.42 2.25 2.2
80 90 90 20 10 10 49.72 2.18 2.33 2.2
60 90 90 40 10 10 49.65 2.16 2.33 2.22
0 40 70 100 60 30 49.78 2.21 2.33 2.33

The analysis of the frequency and current was done with respect to the consumer and
dummy load for each phase. In this table 1, we can see that each phase of alternator
current is balance and output frequency of alternator is balance within range of 49.5 to
50.5 although there is difference in percentage of dummy load switched.
Four different cases are shown in the table for R phase

Case 1: Consumer load consumption of 90% in R-phase

In this case, the consumption of power by R, Y and B phase is 90%, 90%, 90% each at
load side. At this condition the power delivered to the dummy load is the complementary
of that of the consumer side. Hence, 10%, 10%, 10% is delivered to the each phase of
dummy load maintaining the frequency of 50.51 Hz. The values of current are also
balanced for all phase with the values of 2.42A, 2.25A, 2.2 A.

Case 2: Consumer load consumption of 80% in R-phase

For this instance, the consumption of power by R, Y and B phase is 80%, 90%, 90% each
at consumer load side and 10%, 10%, 10% is delivered to the dummy load maintaining
the frequency of49.65 Hz. The values of current balanced for all phase with the values of
2.16A, 2.33A, 2.22A in this case also.

31
Case 3: Consumer load consumption of 60% in R-phase
In this case, the consumption of power by R phase is reduced to 60% and that in Y and B
phase 90%, 90% respectively. At this condition the 40%, 10%, 10% power is diverted to
the dummy load maintaining the frequency of 49.72 Hz. The values of current are also
balanced for all phase with the values of 2.18A, 2.33A, 2.2 A.

Case 4: Consumer load consumption of 0% in R-phase or no load consumption

In this case, the consumption of power by R, Y and B phase is 0%, 40%, 70% each at
consumer load side. At this condition the power delivered to the dummy load is the
complementary of that of the consumer side. Hence, 100%, 60%, 30% is delivered to the
dummy load maintaining the frequency of 49.78 Hz. The values of current are in balanced
condition for each phase with the values of 2.21A, 2.33A, 2.33A even in the varied load
conditions in each phase.

4.4 Loads versus frequency analysis

Load vs Frequency Curve

1200
50
1000

40

Hertz(Hz)
800
Watts(W)

30
600

20
400

200 10

0 0
Total power Actual load Dummy load Frequency

Figure 20 Loads Vs Power Vs Frequency curve

The graph shown in figure 20 is a plot between varied values of consumer load diverting
the respective power to the dummy load and maintained frequency at those conditions. As
shown in the graph at the condition of maximum power consumption by the consumers
least power or no power is diverted to the dummy load and vice-versa. At every load
conditions the values of frequency is maintained in the range of 49.5-50.5. The power

32
delivered to the dummy load is exactly the complement of the power consumed at the
consumer side hence; the total power generated is the sum of two of them.

4.5 Droop characteristics analysis

Droop Characteristics
53.5
53
52.5
52
51.5
Frequency

51
50.5
50
49.5
49
48.5
48
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Load

Figure 21 Droop characteristics analysis

The graph shown in figure 21 is the plot of load versus frequency. This curve shows the
variation of the frequencies by changing the load conditions without implementing the
ELC control in the system. As shown in the graph when the synchronous generator is at
no-load condition the corresponding value of frequency is maximum and with the
increasing loading the value of increased frequency decreased gradually. It showed that
frequency and load has inverse relationship with one another.

4.6 ELC sizing

Power at rated voltage = 3*VIcosΦ

=3*220*4*1
=2640W @220V

Maximum power at 600V

=3*600*4*1
=7200W@600V

33
Generator Rating=1.5W
Operating at 60% load=900W
Ballast load rating=3*400W=1200W

4.7 Summary

In this section we did analysis of the power to consumer load and ballast load by
increasing and decreasing the PWM by varying duty cycle. We compared the power of
consumer and ballast load with the power generated from the generator and analyzed the
power is equal to one another such that power almost remain constant. At the case of
varying loading condition also the frequency remained same and the current is also
balanced between phases.

34
 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
The micro-hydro power generation is a viable option in remote and rural areas where grid
electricity is not available. So, electronic load controllers (ELC) were invented and
advanced with addressing the wide use of micro hydropower generation load. The
hardware design for the parallel operation of the alternators with ELC was designed and
implemented meeting the predefined objectives. The synchronous generator was used and
it was experimented at various load condition of the consumer. Various resistive loads
have been considered and its performance analysis was done with the ballast load. The
average active power generated by generator at any instant is equal to the sum of active
power consumed by consumer and the active power consumed by ballast load at any
instant. We also observed the current at different load condition. The frequency of the
system is nearly constant. The speed of the synchronous generator is also nearly constant.
Moreover, there are some transients in the speed, current and power of the system due to
harmonics at the instance of switching of load which are under the acceptable range.
Synchronization was performed between two alternators in the lab conditions for its
parallel operation.

The future scope of the projects is:

• The ELC model we design is for only resistive load. Further studies might be
needed to implement our strategy in inductive loads as well.

• Filter designs can be done to reduce the harmonics present in the system.

• Even after the reach of NEA transmission at the areas of MHP synchronizing
mechanism can be used to perform synchronize MHP with NEA and continue its
operation

35
 REFERENCES

[1] N. Chaudhary and R. Dhital, "Micro & Mini Hydro Based Mini-Grid for Rural
Energy Access in Taplejung, Nepal", [Link], 2022. [Online].
Available: [Link]
[Accessed: 20- Apr- 2021].
[2] A. Gurung, O. Gurung and S. Oh, "The potential of a renewable energy
technology for rural electrification in Nepal: A case study from
Tangting", [Link], 2022. [Online]. Available:
[Link] [Accessed: 2-
May- 2021].
[3] N. Gyawali, "Universal electronic load controller for microhydro power plant",
2016. [Online]. Available: [Link]
electronic-load-controller-for-microhydro-
Gyawali/450b6ad0dd832954b3ac0adfe1946fe03ab8aacd.[Accessed:2-Feb- 2021].
[4] D. shrestha, A. Rajbanshi, K. Shrestha and I. Tamrakar, "Advance Electronic
Load Controller for Micro Hydro Power Plant - PDF Free Download",
[Link], 2022. [Online]. Available: [Link]
[Link]. [Accessed:
13- May- 2021].
[5] S. Sheeba Rani, V. Gomathy, R. Geethamani, R. Khan.R and M. Raj.D,
"Embedded Design in Synchronization of Alternator Automation", International
Journal of Engineering &amp; Technology, vol. 7, no. 224, p. 460, 2018.
Available: 10.14419/ijet.v7i2.24.12135. [Accessed: 15- Jun- 2021].
[6] P. kapoor, L. Phunchok, S. Kumar and O. Rahi, Frequency Control Of Micro
Hydro Power Plant Using Electronic Load Controller. / International Journal of
Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), 2022. [Accessed: 15- Jun-
2021].
[7] N. Win Aung, "Microcontroller Based Electrical Parameter Monitoring System of
Electronic Load Controller Used in Micro Hydro Power Plant", Journal of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, vol. 3, no. 5, p. 97, 2015. Available:
10.11648/[Link].20150305.11. [Accessed: 18- Aug- 2021].
[8] D. Henderson, "An advanced electronic load governor for control of micro

36
 hydroelectric generation," in IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 13,
no. 3, pp. 300-304, Sept. 1998, doi: 10.1109/60.707611. [Accessed: 1- Jul- 2021].
[9] B. K. Bose, "Power electronics-a technology review," in Proceedings of the IEEE,
vol. 80, no. 8, pp. 1303-1334, Aug. 1992, doi: 10.1109/5.158603. [Accessed: 24-
Jun- 2021].
[10] B. A. Mhlambi, K. Kusakana and J. Raath, "Voltage and Frequency Control of
Isolated Pico-Hydro System," 2018 Open Innovations Conference (OI), 2018, pp.
246-250, doi: 10.1109/OI.2018.8535603[Accessed: 5- Jul- 2021].
[11] Aung, Nan. (2015). Microcontroller Based Electrical Parameter Monitoring
System of Electronic Load Controller Used in Micro Hydro Power Plant. Journal
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering. 3. 97. 10.11648/[Link].20150305.11.
[Accessed: 11- Sep- 2021].
[12] B. Singh, S. Murthy and S. Gupta, "Analysis Of Ac Voltage Controller Based
Electronic Load Controller For Self-Excited Induction Generator", International
Journal of Engineering Research and Advanced Technology, 2017. Available:
10.7324/ijerat.2017.3132. [Accessed: 15- Oct- 2021].
[13] S. Kormilo and P. Robinson, "Electronic control of small hydroelectric schemes
using a microcomputer", IEE Proceedings, vol. 131, no. 4, pp. 132–136.
[Accessed 21 Feb 2022].
[14] B. Singh and G. K. Kasal, "Analysis and Design of Voltage and Frequency
Controllers for Isolated Asynchronous Generators in Constant Power
Applications," 2006 International Conference on Power Electronic, Drives and
Energy Systems, 2006, pp. 1-7, doi: 10.1109/PEDES.2006.344280. [Accessed:
21- Jun- 2021].
[15] P. Engineering et al., "Review and experimental illustrations of electronic load
controller used in standalone Micro-Hydro generating plants", Daneshyari, 2022.
[Online]. Available: [Link] [Accessed: 21-
Jan- 2022].
[16] B. Singh and V. Rajagopal, "Neural-Network-Based Integrated Electronic Load
Controller for Isolated Asynchronous Generators in Small Hydro
Generation", IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 4264-
4274, 2011. Available: 10.1109/tie.2010.2102313. [Accessed: 22- Dec- 2021].
[17] [Link], [Link] “Parallel Operation of MHP Plants with ACVC-ELC and

37
 Discrete-ELC”.2017
[Link]
P_Plants_with_ACVC-ELC_and_Discrete-ELC. [Accessed: 1- Dec- 2021].
[18] electronics-tutorials, 2014. [Online]. Available: [Link]
[Link]/power/[Link]. [Accessed: 21- Jan- 2022].
[19] G. Ahmad, S. Zahoor, F. Durrani and U. Amin, "Implementation of Parallel
Synchronization Method of Generators for Power & Cost Saving in University of
Gujrat", scientific research, vol. 6, pp. 317-332, 2014. Available:
[Link] [Accessed
28- Sep- 2021].
[20] R. Teja, "Synchronization of Generators", electronics hub, 2021. [Online].
Available: [Link]
[Accessed: 21- Sep- 2021].
[21] R. Shinde and P. Bharadwaj, "A Review on Generator Grid Synchronization
Needs Effects, Parameters and Various Methods", International Journal for
Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET), vol. 4, no.
2321-9653, 2016. Available: [Link]
[Link].
[Accessed 9-Oct-2021].

38
 APPENDIX A
In this chapter the hardware implementation of the circuits are included.
Constant Power Supply Unit

Figure 22 Hardware for the Constant power supply

Zero crossing detector circuit

Figure 23 Hardware for zero crossing detectors

39
Overall circuit diagram

Figure 24 Overall hardware design

40
Working model of the circuit for Parallel operation of Alternator with ELC

Figure 25 Overall working model setup

41
 APPENDIX B

MICROCONTROLLER CODES

CODE FOR HARDWARE

#include "ACmeter.h" double timeperiod;

#include <TimerOne.h> double g,x,y,z;
#define triacPulse0 11 // Set only PWM float bright0 = 1024,bright1 = 1024
pins ,bright2 = 1024,f;
#define triacPulse1 12 //Set only PWM void setup(void)
pins {
#define triacPulse2 13 //Set only PWM [Link](9600);
pins pinMode(triacPulse1, OUTPUT);
#define contractor 4 pinMode(triacPulse2, OUTPUT);
const int sensor_in = A3; pinMode(triacPulse0, OUTPUT);
const int sensor_in1 = A4; pinMode(interrupt_pin0,INPUT);
const int sensor_in2 = A5; pinMode(interrupt_pin1,INPUT);
int mv_per_amp0 = 66; pinMode(interrupt_pin2,INPUT);
int mv_per_amp1 = 66; pinMode (contractor,OUTPUT);
int mv_per_amp2 = 66; digitalWrite(contractor,HIGH);
double sensed_rms; attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(2),f
double sensed_rms1; Calculate0,RISING);
double sensed_rms2; attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(3),f
double i0; Calculate1,RISING);
double i1; attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(18)
double i2; ,fCalculate2,RISING);
const byte interrupt_pin0=2; }
const byte interrupt_pin1=3; void loop()
const byte interrupt_pin2=18; {
volatile uint32_t pulse_time; top:
volatile uint32_t first_pulse; //[Link]("hellow");
volatile uint32_t second_pulse; [Link]();
volatile long int count=0; aus();

42
[Link](""); bright1>102 && f>50.5)
[Link]( "DUMMY LOAD {
PERCENTAGE"); [Link](" PHASE Y");
x=(1024-bright0)*0.09765625; bright1 = bright1 - 102.4;
y=(1024-bright1)*0.09765625; TripTriac1(bright1);
z=(1024-bright2)*0.09765625; }
[Link](x); else if (i2<i0 && i2<i1 &&
[Link]("%"); bright2>102 && f>50.5)
[Link]("-R-PHASE" ); {
[Link](y); [Link](" PHASE B");
[Link]("%"); bright2 = bright2 - 102.4;
[Link]("-Y-PHASE" ); }
[Link](z); else
[Link]("%"); {
[Link]("-B-PHASE" ); [Link]("Running in this loop
[Link]("------------------------------- 1st ");
-------"); }
[Link]("FREQUENCY= "); }
[Link](f); else if (f<49.5)
[Link]("------------------------------- {
-------"); if(i0>i1 && i0>i2 &&
[Link](' '); bright0<=922 && f<49.5)
{
[Link](" PHASE R");
if(f>50.5) bright0 = bright0 +102.4;
{ }
if (i0<i1 && i0<i2 && else if(i1>i0 && i1>i2 &&
bright0>102 && f>50.5 ) bright1<=922 && f<49.5 )
{ {
[Link](" PHASE R"); [Link](" PHASE Y");
bright0 = bright0 - 102.4; bright1 = bright1 +102.4;
} TripTriac1(bright1);
else if(i1<i0 && i1<i2 && }

43
 else if(i2>i0 && i2>i1 && first_pulse=pulse_time;
bright2<=922 && f<49.5 ) }
{ else if (count==2){
[Link](" PHASE B"); second_pulse=pulse_time;
bright2 = bright2 + 102.4; }
[Link]("bright2"); }
} void fCalculate0(void)
else {
{ TripTriac0(bright0);
[Link]("Running in this loop }
2nd "); void fCalculate2(void)
while (f<=47 && i0>3 && i1>3 {
&& i2>3) TripTriac2(bright2);
{ }
digitalWrite(4,LOW); void aus()
[Link](triacPulse0,0); {
[Link](triacPulse1,0); noInterrupts();
[Link](triacPulse2,0); timeperiod=(second_pulse-
} first_pulse)*pow(10,-6);
} g=1/timeperiod;
} if (g>=0 && g<=55)
} {
[Link]("-------------------------------
void fCalculate1(void) -------");
{ [Link]("FREQUENCY= ");
pulse_time=micros(); f=g;
count=count+1; [Link](f);
pulse(); [Link]("-------------------------------
} -------");
void pulse(void) [Link](' ');
{ [Link](' ');
if (count==1) }
{ count=0;

44
 interrupts(); [Link](triacPulse1,bright4);
AcMeter a; }
sensed_rms = ([Link](sensor_in) * void TripTriac2(int bright5)
1000)/(mv_per_amp0); {
i0=sensed_rms/2; [Link](1000000/(2*f));
i0=i0-0.12; [Link](triacPulse2,bright5);
[Link](" R-PHASE= "); }
[Link](i0);

AcMeter b;
sensed_rms1 = ([Link](sensor_in1) *
1000)/(mv_per_amp1);
i1=sensed_rms1/2;
i1=i1-0.1;
[Link](" Y-PHASE= ");
[Link](i1);

AcMeter c;
sensed_rms2 = ([Link](sensor_in2) *
1000)/(mv_per_amp2);
i2=sensed_rms2/2;
i2=i2-0.21;
[Link](" B-PHASE= ");
[Link](i2);
}
void TripTriac0(int bright3)
{
[Link](1000000/(2*f));
[Link](triacPulse0,bright3);
}
void TripTriac1(int bright4)
{
[Link](1000000/(2*f));

45
Code for Library function ACmeter.h
#ifndef ACMETER_H
#define ACMETER_H
class AcMeter
{
double result;
int readValue;
int maxValue = 0;
int minValue = 1024;
public:
double getPeak(int channelName);
double getRMS(int channelName);
};
double AcMeter::getPeak(int channelName){
uint32_t start_time = millis();
while((millis()-start_time) < 250){
readValue = analogRead(channelName);
if (readValue > maxValue){
maxValue = readValue;
}
if (readValue < minValue){
minValue = readValue;
}
}
result = ((maxValue - minValue) * 5.0)/1024.0;
return result;
}
double AcMeter::getRMS(int channelName){

return(getPeak(channelName)*0.707);
}
#endif

46
Code for Library function TimerOne .h
#ifndef TIMERONE_h
#define TIMERONE_h
#include <avr/io.h>
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
#define RESOLUTION 65536
class TimerOne
{
public:
unsigned int pwmPeriod;
unsigned char clockSelectBits;
char oldSREG;
void initialize(long microseconds=1000000);
void start();
void stop();
void restart();
void resume();
unsigned long read();
void pwm(char pin, int duty, long microseconds=-1);
void disablePwm(char pin);
void attachInterrupt(void (*isr)(), long microseconds=-1);
void detachInterrupt();
void setPeriod(long microseconds);
void setPwmDuty(char pin, int duty);
void (*isrCallback)();
};
extern TimerOne Timer1;
#endif

47