Lilongwe University of Agriculture and

Natural Resources

Basic Sciences Department

Mathematics I - MAT 111

Module 1

Francisco Chamera and Tasokwa Kakota

August 31, 2016

Module Overview

We are delighted to take you through the first module in mathematics. The content
in this module builds on your knowledge from the secondary school mathematics.
As you may be aware, most of the courses in science programs, and LUANAR
programs in particular, require computational, mathematical and critical thinking
skills. This module provides the foundation knowledge and skills that are required
to competently complete your degree program.
The aim of this module is to enhance your knowledge, skills and attitudes
in mathematics through an interactive learning. The module contains five units
that lay the foundation of mathematics at LUANAR. The first unit introduces
the concept of numbers under systems of naming numbers. The second unit,
discusses the number systems. After you have learnt about numbers, you will
be ready to learn set theory that is presented in third unit. Furthermore, the
module presents relations and functions in fourth unit and graphs of some
functions in the last unit.

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Contents

Module Overview ii

1 Systems of Naming Numbers 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Decimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Binary Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Converting from binary to decimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Converting from decimal to binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 Arithmetic Operations in Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Octal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Conversion between Octal and Decimal Numbers . . . . . . 10
1.5.2 Arithmetic Operations in Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Hexadecimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.1 Operations with hexadecimal numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Binary to Octal, Binary to Hexadecimal and vice versa . . . . . . . 20

2 Number Systems 25
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Sets of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Whole Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.3 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.4 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.5 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.6 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.7 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Operations in Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.1 Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.2 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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 2.4.3 Complex Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Equations Involving Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 Set Theory 41
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Definition and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Set Builder Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Finite, Infinite and Empty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.6 Subsets and Equality of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.7 The Universal Set and Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7.1 Universal Set and Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7.2 The Union of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7.3 The Intersection of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.7.4 Difference of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Venn Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4 Relations and Functions 57

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.5 Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.6 One-to-one and Onto Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.7 Inverse of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.8 Combining Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.8.1 Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.8.2 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.9 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.10 Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.10.1 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.10.2 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5 Graphs of Linear, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 88

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3 Cartesian Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.1 The Distance Between Two Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3.2 The Mid-point of a Line Segment Joining Two Points . . . . 92
5.4 Graphs of Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

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 5.4.1 The Gradient of a Straight Line Joining Two Points . . . . . 94
5.4.2 Equation of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4.3 Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4.4 Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.5 Graphs of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.5.1 Properties of Graphs of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . 103
5.6 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.6.1 Properties of Graphs of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . 106

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vi
Unit 1

Systems of Naming Numbers

1.1 Introduction
Welcome to unit 1 where we are introducing system of naming numbers. Numbers
are named according to the base in which they are expressed. You may recall that
the first numbers you learnt were 1, 2, 3 ... 9. These numbers were expressed to
base 10 and are called decimal numbers. In this unit, you will learn how numbers
are named according to the bases. Numbers can be expressed in any base but this
unit only presents numbers expressed to base ten, two, eight and sixteen. How-
ever, you are expected to be able to express numbers in any base using the same
ideas in this unit. The unit also describes how you can conduct basic operations
of mathematics namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division to num-
bers in different bases. For binary numbers, we look at all the four operations:
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For the other number systems,
we consider addition, subtraction and multiplication.

1.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Express numbers in different bases

• Convert numbers from one base to the other

• Conduct basic operations of numbers in different bases

1
 Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:
• Base
• Binary
• decimal
• octal
• hexadecimal
• binary fractions

1.3 Decimal Number System

Decimal is the most commonly used number system. It consists of base 10 numbers.
The digits used in these numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
We can partition a decimal number into powers of 10. For example

23610 = 2 × 102 + 3 × 101 + 6 × 100

= 2 × 100 + 3 × 10 + 6 × 1
= 200 + 30 + 6

and
71.3510 = 7 × 101 + 1 × 100 + 3 × 10−1 + 5 × 10−2 .
This shows that each position in a decimal number represents a power of ten.
We will not look at arithmetic operations in decimal numbers since you are
already familiar with them.

1.4 Binary Number System

Binary numbers are base two numbers. A binary number is a combination of two
digits, 0 and 1. Any decimal number can be converted to binary and vice versa.
However, there is no difference between 0 in base two and 0 in base ten. Similarly
the numbers 12 and 110 are equal.

2
1.4.1 Converting from binary to decimal
You have seen above that every position in a decimal number represents a power
of ten. Similarly, each position in a binary number represents a power of two. To
convert from binary to decimal, we multiply each binary digit by a power of 2 at
that position then add the values together.

Example 1.1. Convert 1101012 to decimal.

Solution

1101012 = 1 × 25 + 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 5310 .

Example 1.2. Convert 10112 to decimal.

Solution

10112 = 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20
=8+0+2+1
= 1110 .

The same idea is extended to binary fractions. After the binary point, the first
bit is multiplied by 2−1 , the next one by 2−2 followed by 2−3 and so on.

Example 1.3. Convert 111.1012 to decimal.

Solution

111.1012 = 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 1 × 2−1 + 0 × 2−2 + 1 × 2−3

1 1
=4+2+1+ +0+
2 8
= 7.62510

Example 1.4. Convert 11010.0112 to decimal.

Solution

11010.0112 = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 + 0 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 1 × 2−3

1 1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 + +
4 8
= 26.37510

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1.4.2 Converting from decimal to binary
To convert a decimal whole number to binary;
1. Divide the number by 2, write down the remainder and quotient.

2. Divide the quotient by 2, record the new remainder and quotient.

3. Repeat step 2 till the quotient is zero.

4. The solution is the list of remainders in reverse order, that is the number
formed by listing remainders from the last to the first.
Example 1.5. Convert 5310 to binary.
Solution
53/2 = 26 remainder 1
26/2 = 13 remainder 0
13/2 = 6 remainder 1
6/2 = 3 remainder 0
3/2 = 1 remainder 1
1/2 = 0 remainder 1
We stop here and report the answer as 1101012 .
Notice, in the example above, that since 1 is less than 2, 1 divided by 2 gives
0 as the quotient and the remainder is 1 itself.
Example 1.6. Convert 7210 to binary.
Solution
72/2 = 36 remainder 0
36/2 = 18 remainder 0
18/2 = 9 remainder 0
9/2 = 4 remainder 1
4/2 = 2 remainder 0
2/2 = 1 remainder 0
1/2 = 0 remainder 1
Hence 7210 = 10010002 .
Now we look at how to convert decimal fractions to binary. First note that
since a decimal fraction is less than one in base ten, converting it to binary will
give a number which is also less than one in base 2. The reason is that 2 is less
than 10 yet 12 = 110 .
To convert a decimal fraction to binary;

4
 1. Multiply the number by 2 and save the integer part (whole number). The
integer part is the number to the left of a point while the fractional part is
the number to the right of a point. For example, since 1.5 = 1 + 0.5, the
number 1 is the integer part while .5 is the fractional part. Similarly in 0.6,
0 is the integer part and .6 is the fractional part.

2. Multiply the fractional part by 2 and save the new integer part.

3. Repeat step 2 till the fractional part is zero or the required number of binary
places in obtained. (Binary places are positions of digits after a point in a
binary number).

4. The solution is the list of saved integers from top to bottom written after a
binary point.

Example 1.7. Convert 0.17510 to binary fraction.

Solution

0.175 × 2 = 0.35 integer part is 0

0.35 × 2 = 0.7 integer part is 0
0.7 × 2 = 1.4 integer part is 1
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 integer part is 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 integer part is 1

Hence 0.17510 = 0.001012 ....

Example 1.8. Convert 53.17510 to binary.

Solution
Convert the integer part first. By Example 1.5, 5310 = 1101012 . The fractional
part, by Example 1.7, gives 0.17510 = 0.001012 ....
Hence 53.17510 = 110101.001012 ...

Example 1.9. Convert 25.6810 to binary.

Solution
Convert the integer part first.

25/2 = 12 remainder 1
12/2 = 6 remainder 0
6/2 = 3 remainder 0
3/2 = 1 remainder 1
1/2 = 0 remainder 1

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Therefore 2510 = 110012 .
Converting the fractional part gives
0.68 × 2 = 1.36 integer part is 1
0.36 × 2 = 0.72 integer part is 0
0.72 × 2 = 1.44 integer part is 1
0.44 × 2 = 0.88 integer part is 0
Therefore 0.6810 = 0.10102 ....
Combining the two we have 25.6810 = 11001.10102 .

Important
Since 112 6= 1110 , 112 is not eleven. We read this as ‘one-one base two’. Similarly
1012 is read as ‘one-zero-one base two’.

Activity 1.10.

1. Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:

(a) 126 (b) 225 (c) 102 (d) 76.115 (e) 864.445 (f) 49.325 (g) 9984.6655

2. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal:

(a) 1100.1101 (b) 11110100.1110 (c) 111011011101.101 (d) 1000100 (e) 101100011.001

1.4.3 Arithmetic Operations in Binary Numbers

Binary Addition
Binary numbers can be added by first converting them to base ten, add in deci-
mal and then convert the result back to binary. However this is time consuming
especially if the numbers are large. We consider adding binary numbers bit by bit.
First note that, in binary, 0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1 and 1 + 1 = 10. The
last one makes sense since 1 + 1 = 210 and 210 = 102 .
Example 1.11. Work out 111012 + 11102 .
Solution
1 1 1 0 12
+ 1 1 1 02
1 0 1 0 1 12
In third column, 1 + 1 = 210 = 102 , we write 0 and ‘keep’ 1. In second column,
1 + 1 + 1 = 310 = 112 . So we write 1 and move on with 1.

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Example 1.12. Work out 111102 + 110112 .
Solution
1 1 1 1 02
+ 1 1 0 1 12
1 1 1 0 0 12

Binary Subtraction
We consider subtraction of binary numbers whose result is a positive binary num-
ber. Therefore the smaller number will be subtracted from the bigger number.
Note that, in binary, 0 − 0 = 0, 1 − 1 = 0 and 1 − 0 = 1. 0 − 1 wont give us a
positive number, so we need a carry bit (we ‘borrow’ 1). For example, 102 −12 = 12
and 112 − 1 = 102 .
Example 1.13. Work out 111102 − 10012 .
Solution
1 1 1 1 02
− 1 0 0 12
1 0 1 0 12
Example 1.14. Work out 100012 − 11102 .
Solution
1 0 0 0 12
− 1 1 1 02
1 12

Activity 1.15.
1. Perform the indicated operation
(a) 10102 + 10102
(b) 100112 + 10102
(c) 10100102 + 11101112 − 101012
(d) 111012 + 1002
(e) 101102 + 110012
(f) 1112 + 12
(g) 100112 − 10102
(h) 101012 − 11012
(i) 1000112 − 110102

7
Binary Multiplication
Here we require the skill of binary addition. Note that 1 × 1 = 1, 1 × 0 = 0,
0 × 1 = 0 and 0 × 0 = 0.

Example 1.16. Work out 110012 × 1012 .

Solution
1 0 1 0 12
× 1 0 12
1 1 0 0 1
+ 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 12

Example 1.17. Work out 1101012 × 112 .

Solution
1 1 0
0 12 1
× 1 12
1 1 0 1 0 1
+ 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 12

Binary Division
We consider long division method for binary numbers. The skill of binary subtrac-
tion is required in binary division.
If you are not sure on the values you get, you can convert each number to
decimal, divide in decimal then convert the result to binary. However doing this
during an examination is unacceptable.
Note that the result of dividing two binary numbers of equal length (same
number of digits) is either 1 or 0 with or without a remainder. Also note that
0/1 = 0 and 1/1 = 1.

8
Example 1.18. Work out 1010102 ÷ 1102 .
Solution

Hence 1010102 ÷ 1102 = 1112 .

Example 1.19. Work out 110112 ÷ 102 .
Solution

Hence 110112 ÷ 102 = 11012 , Remainder 1.

Activity 1.20.

1. Perform the indicated operation

(a) 1112 × 1012

9
 (b) 1010102 × 1102
(c) 1011012 × 112
(d) 10001002 ÷ 102
(e) 11101101012 ÷ 1012
(f) 11110002 ÷ 1102

1.5 Octal Number System

An octal number system is a base 8 system with digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Therefore the largest octal digit is 7.

1.5.1 Conversion between Octal and Decimal Numbers

The conversion is similar to that of binary except that here we use 8 instead of
2. Recall that each position in a binary number represents a power of 2. On the
other hand, a position of a digit in an octal number represents a power of 8.
Also note that any number with a single digit from 0 to 7 is the same whether
in base 8 or base 10. This means that, for example, 78 = 710 . This is not true for
numbers more than 7 (with two or more digits in base 8). For example 128 6= 1210 .
We illustrate conversion of numbers between octal and decimal in the following
examples.
Example 1.21. Convert 578 to decimal.
Solution

578 = 5 × 81 + 7 × 80
= 40 + 7
= 4710

Example 1.22. Convert 121.218 to decimal.

Solution

121.218 = 1 × 82 + 2 × 81 + 1 × 80 + 2 × 8−1 + 1 × 8−2

2 1
= 64 + 16 + 1 + +
8 64
= 81.265610 .

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Example 1.23. Convert 205.137510 to octal.

Solution
Convert the integer part first.

205/8 = 25 remainder 5
25/8 = 3 remainder 1
3/8 = 0 remainder 3.

Therefore 20510 = 3158 .

Converting the fractional part gives the following:

0.1375 × 8 = 1.1 integer part is 1

0.1 × 8 = 0.8 integer part is 0
0.8 × 8 = 6.4 integer part is 6
0.4 × 8 = 3.2 integer part is 3

Therefore 0.137510 = 0.10638 ....

Combining the two we have 205.137510 = 315.10638 .

Important
As is the case with binary numbers, octal numbers are read one digit after the
other. For example, 5728 is read as ‘five-seven-two base eight’.

Activity 1.24.

1. Convert the following decimal numbers to octal:

(a) 122610 (b) 716.11510 (c) 432.32510

2. Convert the following octal numbers to decimal:

(a) 76.1158 (b) 567318 (c) 4672.448 (d) 513738

1.5.2 Arithmetic Operations in Octal Numbers

Octal Addition
To add two octal numbers, we add the digits in base 10 and quickly convert the
sum to base 8. For example, 5 + 3 = 810 but 810 = 108 . Therefore 5 + 3 = 108 .
Similarly 7 + 7 = 168 , 4 + 6 = 128 and 5 + 7 = 148 .

Example 1.25. Work out 1268 + 738 .

11
 Solution
1
2 68
+ 7 38
2 2 18

6 + 3 = 9 = 118 , we write 1 and move on with 1. 1 + 2 + 7 = 10 = 128 , we

write 2 and move on with 1. 1 + 1 = 210 = 28 .
Hence 1268 + 738 = 2218 .

Example 1.26. Find the sum of 26158 and 7468 .

Solution
2
6 1 58
+ 7 4 68
3 5 6 38

5 + 6 = 11 = 138 , write 3 and move on with 1. 1 + 1 + 4 = 610 = 68 .

7 + 6 = 13 = 158 , write 5 and keep 1. Finally 1 + 2 = 310 = 38 .
Hence 26158 + 7468 = 35638 .

Example 1.27. Add 12168 to 11678 .

Solution
1 1 6 78
+ 1 2 1 68
2 4 0 58

Octal Subtraction
Octal subtraction is similar to subtraction of decimal numbers. While a ‘borrow’
(carry bit) of 1 is equivalent to 10 in decimal, it is equivalent to 8 in octal. Note
that 108 − 3 = 5, 128 − 6 = 4 and 118 − 7 = 2. To see why these statements are
true, convert the numbers to base 10 then subtract.
It is easy to verify that the following statements are true: 228 − 128 = 108 ,
208 − 7 = 118 and 318 − 148 = 158 .

Example 1.28. Subtract 1748 from 17638 .

Solution
1
7 6 38
− 1 7 48
1 5 6 78

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 3 − 4 does not give us a positive number, so we borrow a 1 from 6 to have
138 . This is actually 8 + 3 = 1110 and subtracting 4 from it gives 7. Therefore
138 − 48 = 78 . Similarly 158 − 78 = 68 .

Example 1.29. Work out 12018 − 718 .

Solution
1 2 0 18
− 7 18
1 1 1 08

Activity 1.30.

1. Perform the indicated operation

(a) 6218 + 1748

(b) 132558 + 70318
(c) 6753028 + 6768
(d) 4448 − 768
(e) 10238 − 4248
(f) 2368 − 1278
(g) 10018 − 768 + 448

Octal Multiplication
In octal multiplication, digits are multiplied in base 10 but the result is quickly
converted to base 8. Note that 3 × 4 = 148 , 7 × 2 = 168 , 138 × 2 = 268 and
6 × 6 = 448 . The last one is true since 6 × 6 = 3610 and 3610 = 448 . Use the same
idea to verify that the first three statements are also true.

Example 1.31. Work out 1268 × 48 .

Solution
1 2 68
× 48
5 3 08

6 × 4 = 2410 = 308 , write 0 and keep 3. 3 + (2 × 4) = 3 + 8 = 1110 = 138 , write

3 and keep 1. 1 + (1 × 4) = 510 = 58 .

13
Example 1.32. Work out 2318 × 678 .

Solution
2 3 18
× 6 78
2 0 5 7
+ 1 6 2 6
2 0 3 3 78

1 × 7 = 710 = 78 , 3 × 7 = 2110 = 258 , 2 × 7 = 1410 = 168 .

1 × 6 = 610 = 68 , 3 × 6 = 1810 = 228 and 2 × 6 = 1210 = 148 .

Activity 1.33.

1. Multiply the following numbers;

(a) 376548 × 38
(b) 67318 × 568
(c) 4568 × 738
(d) 674228 × 458
(e) 778 × 2.48

1.6 Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal numbers are base 16 numbers (hex = 6 and dec = 10) with 16 sym-
bols. To avoid confusion, letters are used to represent some numbers as follows:
10 = A, 11 = B, 12 = C, 13 = D, 14 = E and 15 = F . Hence the digits in
hexadecimal numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F .
The letters are used for writing purposes only. For example, we write C instead
of 12. For calculation purposes we use numbers. For example, if C is to be added,
it is 12 that is used.
Conversion from hexadecimal to decimal and vice versa are similar to those
carried out in octal numbers. Recall that each position in an octal number rep-
resents a power of 8. Therefore a position of a digit in a hexadecimal number
represents a power of 16.
We illustrate this in the following examples.

Example 1.34. Change A3D916 to a decimal number.

14
 Solution
A3D916 = A × 163 + 3 × 162 + D × 161 + 9 × 160
= 10 × 163 + 3 × 162 + 13 × 161 + 9
= 40960 + 768 + 208 + 9
= 4194510
Example 1.35. Write 9AF.DE16 in base 10.
Solution
9AF.DE16 = 9 × 162 + 10 × 161 + 15 × 160 + 13 × 16−1 + 14 × 16−2
= 2479 + 13/16 + 14/256
= 2479 + 222/256
= 2479.86710 .
Example 1.36. Convert 31510 to hexadecimal.
Solution
315/16 = 19 remainder 11 (B)
19/16 = 1 remainder 3
1/16 = 0 remainder 1.
Therefore 31510 = 13B16 .
Example 1.37. Convert 0.42510 to hexadecimal.
Solution
0.425 × 16 = 6.8 integer part is 6
0.8 × 16 = 12.8 integer part is 12(C)
0.8 × 16 = 12.8 integer part is 12(C).
Therefore 0.42510 = 0.6CC16 ....
Example 1.38. Say whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a 1510 = 1516
b 1510 = F16
Solution
a Converting we have 1516 = 1×161 +5×160 = 16+5 = 2110 6= 1510 . Therefore
it is not true.
b The second statement is clearly true since fifteen is represented by the letter
F in base 16.

15
Important
The last example shows that the number fifteen is the same whether in base 10 or
base 16. This is true for all numbers between zero and fifteen inclusive. The only
difference is that in base 16 some numbers are represented by a single digit while
in base 10 they have two digits.
The example also shows that any number with two or more digits in base 16
is not equal to the same digits in base 10. For example 35416 6= 35410 .

Activity 1.39.

1. Convert the following decimal numbers to hexadecimal:

(a) 120610 (b) 212510 (c) 76102.32510 (d) 7213426.121510 (e) 89964.44510

2. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal:

(a) F 4C (b) ABEC16 (c) 3D4C.5B16 (d) F F 6DC.2E316 (e) ACDF 5.22F16

1.6.1 Operations with hexadecimal numbers

Hexadecimal Addition
In hexadecimal addition, digits are added in base 10 but the result is reported in
base 16. Note that A + D = 10 + 13 = 2310 = 1716 , D + 9 = 13 + 9 = 2210 = 1616 ,
A + A = 10 + 10 = 2010 = 1416 and 8 + 8 = 1610 = 1016 .

Example 1.40. Work out 65616 + 88B16 .

Solution
6 5 616
+ 8 8 B16
E E 116

Here we have 6 + B = 6 + 11 = 1710 = 1116 , so we write 1 and move on with

another 1. Next we add 1 + 5 + 8 = 14 = E. Finally we add 6 and 8 to get 14 = E.

Example 1.41. Work out EDA16 + F F16 .

Solution
E D A16
+ F F16
F D 916

16
 A + F = 10 + 15 = 2510 = 1916 , write 9 and keep 1.
1 + D + F = 1 + 13 + 15 = 2910 = 1D16 , write D and keep 1.
Finally we have 1 + E = 1 + 14 = 1510 = F16 .

Example 1.42. Work out 78416 + BDA16 .

Solution
7 8 416
+ B D A16
1 3 5 E16

4 + A = 4 + 10 = 1410 = E16 .
8 + D = 8 + 13 = 2110 = 1516 , write 5 and keep 1.
1 + 7 + B = 1 + 7 + 11 = 1910 = 1316 .

Hexadecimal Subtraction
Subtraction in hexadecimal numbers is equivalent to subtraction in other num-
ber systems. The only difference is that, in hexadecimal numbers, a carry bit is
equivalent to 16.
Note that F16 − 5 = 1510 − 5 = 1010 = A16 , 1016 − F16 = 1610 − 1510 = 116 and
2016 − 1D16 = 3210 − 2910 = 316 .

Example 1.43. Subtract BDA16 from 135E16 .

Solution
1 3 5 E16
− B D A16
7 8 416

E16 − A16 = 1410 − 1010 = 410 = 416 .

1516 − D16 = 2110 − 1310 = 810 = 816 .
1216 − B16 = 1810 − 1110 = 710 = 716 .

Example 1.44. Work out 364C116 − AB2116 .

Solution
3 6 4 C 116
− A B 2 116
2 B 9 A 016

17
 C16 − 216 = 1210 − 210 = 1010 = A16 .
1416 − B16 = 2010 − 1110 = 910 = 916 .
1516 − A16 = 2110 − 1010 = 1110 = B16 .

Activity 1.45.

1. Perform the indicated operation

(a) C1416 + 19E16

(b) 57116 + BB316
(c) 4A3C16 + 935116
(d) 432116 + DCBA16
(e) 79DF16 + A64116
(f) ABC16 − 64216
(g) 1E9C416 − F 4A116
(h) D9F16 − 46A16
(i) A1C616 − C9516
(j) 405716 − 9ED16

Hexadecimal Multiplication
Multiplication of hexadecimal numbers is similar to multiplication of octal num-
bers. Here you multiply digits in decimal and write the answer in hexadecimal.
You need to be able to convert numbers quickly between base 10 and base 16. You
also require the skill of hexadecimal addition.
Note that A16 × 2 = 1416 , 2216 × 3 = 6616 , AA16 × 2 = 15416 , C16 × 4 = 3016
and 1F16 × 2 = 3E16 .

Example 1.46. Work out F 4A116 × 616 .

Solution
F 4 A 116
× 616
5 B B C 616

116 × 616 = 110 × 610 = 610 = 616 .

18
 A16 × 616 = 1010 × 610 = 6010 = 3C16 , write C and keep 3.

316 + (416 × 616 ) = 310 + 2410 = 2710 = 1B16 , write B and keep 1.

116 + (F16 × 616 ) = 110 + (1510 × 610 ) = 9110 = 5B16 .

Example 1.47. Work out 7E5E16 × 1216 .
Solution
7 E 5 E16
× 1 216
F C B C
+7 E 5 E
8 E 2 9 C16

E16 × 216 = 1410 × 210 = 2810 = 1C16 , write C and keep 1.

116 + (516 × 216 ) = 110 + (510 × 210 ) = 1 + 10 = 1110 = B16 .

116 + (716 × 216 ) = 110 + (710 × 210 ) = 1 + 14 = 1510 = F16 .
On addition, observe the following;
B16 + E16 = 1110 + 1410 = 2510 = 1916 , write 9 and keep 1.

116 + C16 + 516 = 110 + 1210 + 510 = 1810 = 1216 , write 2 and keep 1.

116 + F16 + E16 = 110 + 1510 + 1410 = 3010 = 1E16 , write E and keep 1.

Finally, 116 + 716 = 110 + 710 = 810 = 816 .

Activity 1.48.

1. Multiply the following hexadecimal numbers;

(a) A0B16 × 3916
(b) F F 81C.B16 × D.E16
(c) 5617BC.1C16 × 2F16
(d) A32.2516 × D.116
(e) F 76ADD09824A.CB16 × F16
(f) DDE30116 × F A16
(g) 79616 × 9916
(h) D0F B16 × 0.2A16

19
1.7 Binary to Octal, Binary to Hexadecimal and
vice versa
We have looked at converting numbers from any base to base 10 and vice versa.
Suppose you are asked to convert a binary number to octal. You can first convert
the number from base 2 to base 10, then convert the result to base 8. However,
this can take you a lot of time especially if the number is large.
In this section, we look at a direct way of converting between binary and octal
and between binary and hexadecimal.
Conversion of binary numbers to octal requires putting binary bits into groups
of three. Then each group of bits is converted to a decimal number. For the integer
part, groups are formed beginning from right and progressing to the left. For the
fractional part, we start from left and progress to the right. For numbers with
both integer and fractional parts, we start from the binary point and move to the
left for the integer part and to the right for the fractional part.
If the number of bits in a binary number is not a multiple of three, we add
zeros so that it becomes a multiple of three. For the integer part zeros are added
to the left while for the fractional part zeros are added to the right of a number.
Note that this kind of addition of zeros does not change the value of the number.

Example 1.49. Convert 111001118 to octal.

Solution
There are 8 bits (digits) in this number. 8 is not a multiple of 3 but 9 is.
Therefore, we add zero to the left of this number so that we have 9 bits. Putting
the digits into groups of 3 we have

011, 100 and 111.

Now 0112 = 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 0 + 2 + 1 = 3. Similarly, 100 = 4 and

111 = 7.

011 100 111

3 4 7

Hence 111001112 = 3478 .

Example 1.50. Convert 11100010101010100100011.111012 to octal.

Solution
011 100 010 101 010 100 100 011 . 111 010
3 4 2 5 2 4 4 3 . 7 2

20
Hence 11100010101010100100011.111012 = 34252443.728 .
Conversion of binary numbers to hexadecimal numbers is done in a similar
manner only that now binary bits are put into groups of four.
Example 1.51. Convert 101111.00111112 to hexadecimal.
Solution
0010 1111 . 0011 1110
2 F . 3 E
Hence 101111.00111112 = 2F.3E16 .
To convert from octal to binary, convert each digit to three binary bits and
add zeros where necessary. Zeros are added to the left. Similarly, to convert from
hexadecimal to binary, change each hexadecimal digit to four binary bits.
Example 1.52. Convert 7628 to binary.
Solution
7 6 2
111 110 010
Hence 7628 = 1111100102 .
Example 1.53. Write 3B25.E16 in binary.
Solution
3 B 2 5 . E
0011 1011 0010 0101 . 1110.
Hence 3B25.E16 = 11101100100101.11102 .

Activity 1.54.

1. Convert the following numbers directly to binary:

(a) 1268 (b) 2AF 2DE516 (c) F AD70B10216 (d) 76.1158 (e) 7764.4458 (f)
4BC9.32F 516 (g) 9984.05516
2. Convert the following binary numbers directly to octal:
(a) 1100.1101 (b) 11110100.1110 (c) 111011011101.101 (d) 10001000011110011001010
(e) 11100111000111111111111100011.001010
3. Convert the following binary numbers directly to hexadecimal:
(a) 1100.1101 (b) 11110100.1110 (c) 111011011101.101 (d) 10001000011110011001010
(e) 11100111000111111111111100011.001010

21
 Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt how to convert numbers from one base to an-
other. The number systems; decimal (base 10), binary (base 2), octal (base 8) and
hexadecimal (base 16) were discussed.
You also learnt how to perform arithmetic operations in each number system
discussed. It is expected that you will be able to extend this knowledge to other
systems not discussed in this unit.

Activity 1.55 (Unit Test).

1. (a) If 15 × 5 = 114, which number base has been used?

(b) If 15 × 5 = 111, which number base has been used?
(c) If 134 × 3 = 1012, which number base has been used?
(d) If 2001 + 22 = 2100, which number base has been used?
(e) If 90 + 90 = 120, which number base has been used?
(f) If 275 − 76 = 177, which number base has been used?

2. Solve the following equations;

(a) 120n = 6316

(b) 132n = 708
(c) 400n = 9016
(d) 110012 = 27n
(e) 11200n = 11111102

3. Perform the indicated operation. Write the answer in the base indicated.

(a) 20023 + 30134 (base 3)

(b) DCA0216 + 975360210 (base 2)
(c) 12610 × 102 (base 4)
(d) 401235 × 708 (base 10)
(e) 51210 × 1016 (base 7)

4. What is the smallest binary number that must be added to 1011012 to make
the sum divisible by 16?

22
 Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.10

1. (a) 11111102 (b) 111000012 (c) 11001102 (d) 1001100.000112 (e) 1101100000.01112
(f) 110001.01012 (g) 10011100000000.101012 .

2. (a) 12.812510 (b) 244.87510 (c) 3803.62510 (d) 6810 (e) 355.12510 .

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.15

1. (a) 101002 (b) 111012 (c) 101101002 (d) 1000012 (e) 1011112
(f) 10002 (g) 10012 (h) 10002 (i) 10012 .

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.20

1. (a) 1000112 (b) 111111002 (c) 100001112 (d) 1000102

(e) 101111012 Remainder 1002 (f) 101002 .

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.24

1. (a) 23128 (b) 1314.07278 (c) 660.24638

2. (a) 62.1510 (b) 2402510 (c) 2490.5610 (d) 485910 .

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.30

1. (a) 10158 (b) 223068 (c) 6762008 (d) 3668 (e) 3778 (f) 1078

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.33

1. (a) 2634048 (b) 4763768 (c) 426328

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.39

1. (a) 4B616 (b) 84D16 (c) 12946.533316

2. (a) 391610 (b) 4401210 (c) 15692.35510

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.45

1. (a) DB216 (b) 112416 (c) DD8D16 (f) 47A16 (h) 93516 (j) 36AA16

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.48

23
1. (a) 23C7316 (b) DCDA1D8916 (f) D8AF AEF A16 (h) 22492E0016

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.54

1. (a) 10101102 (b) 1010101111001011011111001012 (d) 1110110.00100101012

2. (a) 14.648 (b) 364.78 (c) 7335.58

3. (a) C.D16 (b) F 4.E16 (c) EDD.A16 (d) 443CCA16

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. (a) Base 7 (b) Base 8 (c) Base 5 (d) Base 3 (e) Base 16 (f) Base 8

2. (a) n = 9 (b) n = 6 (c) n = 12 (d) n = 9 (e) n = 3

3. (a) 1001103

4. 112

24
Unit 2

Number Systems

2.1 Introduction
Welcome to unit 2 which is about number systems. In this unit, you will learn
different sets of numbers and how they are related to each other. You will learn
imaginary numbers, complex conjugation, basic operations of complex numbers
and solving equations involving complex numbers.

2.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Describe different sets of numbers

• Conduct basic operations in complex numbers

• Solve equations involving complex numbers

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:
• Natural numbers

• whole numbers

• integers

25
 • rational numbers

• irrational numbers

• real numbers

• complex numbers

• imaginary part

• real part

• complex conjugate

2.3 Sets of Numbers

2.3.1 Natural Numbers
Definition 2.1. Natural numbers are counting numbers, that is numbers used
when counting.

Which number do you start with when counting? You may have your answer
as 1. This means that 1 is the smallest natural number.
What do you think is the largest natural number? Note that there is actually
no largest natural number. That is, there is always a natural number larger than
any number you can think of.
The list of natural numbers is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, .... The dots at
the end of this list indicate that the list is endless. Natural numbers are represented
by N.

2.3.2 Whole Numbers

The list of natural numbers above does not contain 0. The reason is that we do
not start at 0 when counting. Including 0 in the list gives a different system of
numbers.

Definition 2.2. Whole numbers are all natural numbers plus zero.

The list of whole numbers is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, ..... What do you
think is the largest whole number? Note that there is no largest whole number.

26
2.3.3 Integers
Definition 2.3. Integers are all positive and negative whole numbers including
zero.

Integers are represented by Z. Examples of integers include ...−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ......
The dots at the beginning of the list shows that there is no smallest integer.
The dots at the end indicate that there is no largest integer.

2.3.4 Rational Numbers

Definition 2.4. A rational number is any number that can be written as a quotient
x
y

where x and y are integers and y 6= 0 (dividing by zero is undefined!).

Rational numbers are denoted by Q. Examples of rational numbers include

2 4 −2
, , , 0.8, −75.34 and 6.5.
3 17 5
The definition above implies that a rational number is a fraction in which both
numerator and denominator are integers (the denominator is never 0 since dividing
by 0 has no meaning). That is, a rational number is a ratio of integers.
According to the definition of a rational number above, do you think 14 is a
rational number? You are correct if your answer is yes. To see why this is true,
14
write 14 as . This shows that 14 satisfies the definition of a rational number.
1
By extension, it is easy to see that all integers are rational numbers.
The decimal expansion of a rational number either terminates (comes to an
end) or recurs (repeats). Examples of rational numbers whose decimal expansion
6 3 3
terminates are = 0.03, = 0.75 and = 0.01. Decimal expansion of the fol-
200 4 300
4 1
lowing numbers recurs: = 0.04040404040404...., = 0.01136363636363636...
99 88
2
and = 0.01980198019801980198...
101

2.3.5 Irrational Numbers

Definition 2.5. Irrational numbers are numbers which can not be expressed as
ratios of integers, i.e., numbers which are not rational.
√ √ √ √ √
Examples of irrational numbers include π, 2, 3, 5, 11 and 17.

27
 You may be wondering why π is not a rational number. All along you have
22
known π as which is a rational number. On your scientific calculator
7
22
= 3.142857142857142857142857142857....
7
and
π = 3.14159226535897932384626433832795...
Notice that, in the decimal expansions of the two numbers, only the first three
22 22
digits are equal. So π is only close to . is used in place of π for easy
7 7
calculation.
The decimal
√ expansion of an irrational number
√ neither terminates nor recurs.
For example, 2 = 1.414213562373095.... and 15 = 3.872983346207416....

2.3.6 Real Numbers

Definition 2.6. Real numbers are all rational numbers and irrational numbers.
√ √
Real numbers are denoted by R. Examples include 0, 1, 2, 23, π, 201, −16, 2/3
and 9.77.

Activity 2.7.

Say whether each statement is true or false.

1. All whole numbers are natural numbers.

2. The result of adding two integers is another integer.

3. All natural numbers are whole numbers.

4. The product of two irrational numbers is a rational number.

5. ‘Non-negative numbers’ and ‘positive numbers’ refer to the same group of

numbers.
22
6. π = . Therefore, it is a rational number.
7
7
7. = 0.
0
0
8. is undefined (has no meaning).
5
28
 9. Every rational number is a real number.

10. Some rational numbers are irrational numbers.

11. Some irrational numbers are real numbers.

2.3.7 Complex Numbers

p
On your calculator, what is (−20)? Why is it an error? The calculator works
with real numbers. Square root
p of a negative number is not a real number. That
is why the calculator reports (−20) as an error.

Definition 2.8. A complex number is a number expressed as

z = x + iy

where x and y are real numbers and

√
i2 = −1 (or i = −1).

Complex numbers are represented by C. Examples of complex numbers are

3 + 4i and 7 − i. √
The number i = −1 is called an imaginary number. For a complex number
z = x + iy, x is called the real part of z written as Re(z) and y is the imaginary
part of z written as Im(z). For example, in 3 + 4i, 3 is a real part and 7 is an
imaginary part. What is the imaginary part of the complex number 7 − i? You
are correct if your answer is −1.

Example 2.9.

Simplify i29 .
Solution
We use laws of exponents and the fact that i2 = −1.

i29 = i28 × i
= (i2 )14 × i
= (−1)14 × i
=1×i
= i.

Activity 2.10.

29
 Simplify the following powers of i:
1. i3
2. i4
3. i25
4. i−27
5. i200 − 1
By the definition of a complex number above, do you think 7 is a complex
number? You are correct if your answer is yes. To see why this is true, write 7 as
7 + 0i. So 7 is a complex number with real part 7 itself and imaginary part 0. It
is easy to see that every real number is a complex number.

2.4 Operations in Complex Numbers

2.4.1 Addition and Subtraction
When adding two complex numbers, we add the real part of one number to the
real part of another and the imaginary parts are also added together. Therefore
the sum of two complex numbers is the sum of the real parts plus the sum of
imaginary parts.
Example 2.11.
Simplify and write your answer in the form x + iy where x and y are real
numbers.
1. (2 + 5i) + (7 + 3i)
2. (3 − 4i) + (−5 + 6i)
Solution
1.
(2 + 5i) + (7 + 3i) = (2 + 7) + (5i + 3i)
= 9 + 8i.

2.
(3 − 4i) + (−5 + 6i) = (3 − 5) + (−4i + 6i)
= −2 + 2i.

30
 Subtraction of complex numbers is similar to addition. We subtract complex
numbers by subtracting the real parts and subtracting the imaginary parts.
Example 2.12.
Simplify and write your answer in the form x + iy where x and y are real
numbers.
1. (1 + 8i) − (6 + i)

2. (2 − 5i) − (5 − 11i)

3. (2 + 3i) − (2 − 3i)
Solution

1.

(1 + 8i) − (6 + i) = 1 + 8i − 6 − i
= (1 − 6) + (8i − i)
= −5 + 7i.

2.

(2 − 5i) − (5 − 11i) = 2 − 5i − 5 + 11i

= (2 − 5) + (−5i + 11i)
= −3 + 6i.

3.

(2 + 3i) − (2 − 3i) = 2 + 3i − 2 + 3i
= (2 − 2) + (3i + 3i)
= 6i.

Activity 2.13.

1. Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the form x + iy.

(a) (5 − 5i) + (3 + 2i)

(b) (3 + i) − (2 − i)
(c) (16 + 2i) + (4 − 3i)

31
    
1 5
(d) 4 − i − 9 + i
2 2
(e) i5 + i + 1
(f) (3 + 2i) + (9 + 7i) + (−2 − i)
   
1 2 5
(g) + i − 4+ i
5 5 2
(h) 3 + 4 + 6i
(i) i(9 − 2i) − (5 + 7i)
(j) (17 + i) + (9 − i) − (8 + 9i) − (6 − 7i)
(k) 7 + i + 4 + 5
(l) (12 − 5i) + (3 − 7i)
(m) (18 + 15i) − (15 − 2i) − (3 + 7i)
(n) 5(4 + 3i) − 4(−1 + 2i)
(o) (10 + 5i) − (4 − 6i) + (19 − i)

2.4.2 Multiplication
We multiply complex numbers using the same technique used for multiplying
brackets in algebra. We simplify powers of i using the fact that i2 = −1.

Example 2.14.

Simplify (5 − 3i)(2 − 7i).

Solution

(5 − 3i)(2 − 7i) = 10 − 35i − 6i + 21i2

= 10 − 35i − 6i − 21
= (10 − 21) + (−35 − 6)i
= −11 − 41i.

Example 2.15.

Simplify (2 + 5i)(4 − i).

Solution

32
 (2 + 5i)(4 − i) = 8 − 2i + 20i − 5i2
= 8 − 2i + 20i + 5
= (8 + 5) + (−2i + 20i)
= 13 + 18i.

Activity 2.16.
1. Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the form x + iy.
(a) (1 − 2i)(8 − 3i)
(b) (7 − 4i)2
(c) (1 + i)(2 + i)(3 + i)
√ ! √ !
3 1 1 3
(d) + i + i
2 2 2 2
(e) (1 + i)6
  
1 i 3
(f) + −i
2 7 2
(g) (3 + 3i)8
√ √
(h) (3 2 + i)( 2 − i)
(i) (1 − i)4
(j) (3i)3 − 3i3
(k) (2i)6
(l) 5i × (−i)
(m) 7i × 4i(−6 − 6i)
(n) (6i)3
(o) 6i(−4 + 8)

2.4.3 Complex Conjugation

The complex conjugate of a complex number is found by changing the sign of the
imaginary part.
Definition 2.17. The complex conjugate z of a complex number z = x + iy is
given by z = x − iy.
For example, the complex conjugate of z1 = 7 + 2i is z1 = 7 − 2i while that of
z2 = 11 − 6i is z2 = 11 + 6i.

33
Properties of Complex Conjugation
We state the following properties of complex conjugation without proof.

1. The product of a complex number by its conjugate is a real number. For

example,

(3 + 2i)(3 − 2i) = 9 − 6i + 6i − 4i2

=9+4
= 13.

In general, (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 − ixy + ixy − i2 y 2 = x2 + y 2 .

2. The sum of a complex number and its conjugate is twice the real part. For
example,

(3 + 2i) + (3 − 2i) = (3 + 3) + (2i − 2i)

= 6.

In general, (x + iy) + (x − iy) = (x + x) + (iy − iy) = 2x.

3. The difference between a complex number and its conjugate is twice the
imaginary part times i. For example,

(3 + 2i) − (3 − 2i) = 3 + 2i − 3 + 2i
= (3 − 3) + (2i + 2i)
= 4i.

In general, (x + iy) − (x − iy) = x + iy − x + iy = (x − x) + (iy + iy) = 2yi.

Activity 2.18.

1. Find the complex conjugate of each of the following complex numbers;

(a) 23 − 4i
(b) 8i − 13
(c) 2 + 16i
(d) 7
(e) 19i
√
2. Simplify 2i(i − 1) + ( 3 + i)3 + (1 + i)(1 + i)

34
2.4.4 Division
To divide one complex number by another;

1. Find the conjugate of the denominator.

2. Multiply the conjugate by both the denominator and numerator. By the

first property of complex conjugation, this results into a real number in the
denominator.

3. Express the result in the form x + iy (Recall that i2 = −1).

Example 2.19.

2 − 5i
Simplify and write the answer in the form x + iy.
3 + 4i
Solution

2 − 5i 2 − 5i 3 − 4i
= ×
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i
6 − 8i − 15i + 20i2
=
9 − 12i + 12i − 16i2
6 − 8i − 15i − 20
=
9 + 16
(6 − 20) + (−8i − 15i)
=
25
−14 − 23i
=
 25  
−14 −23
= + i.
25 25

Example 2.20.

Simplify (3 + i) ÷ (1 − i) and write the answer in the form x + iy.

Solution

35
 3+i 1+i
(3 + i) ÷ (1 − i) = ×
1−i 1+i
3 + 3i + i + i2
=
1 + i − i − i2
3 + 3i + i − 1
=
1+1
(3 − 1) + (3i + i)
=
2
2 + 4i 2 4i
= = +
2 2 2
= 1 + 2i.

Activity 2.21.

1. Simplify and write your answer in the form x + iy;

(a) (6 + i) ÷ (3 + 4i)
1+i
(b)
2+i
2+i
(c)
1 + 4i
3 + 5i
(d)
6 − 8i
(3 − 4i)2
(e)
1+i
3
(f)
4 − 3i
i−4
(g)
2i − 3
(h) (2 + i)−3
1+i 3−i
(i) − (1 + 2i) +
1−i 1+i
14 + 13i
(j)
2−i
1+i 3−i
(k) − (1 + 2i)(2 + 2i) +
1−i 1+i

36
2.5 Equations Involving Complex Numbers
To solve an equation involving complex numbers, equate the real and imaginary
parts of each side of the equation to form two equations. We demonstrate this in
the following examples.
Example 2.22.
Solve for x and y in the equation (3x + 2) + (2y − 4)i = −4 + 6i.
Solution:
The real part of the complex number appearing on the right hand side of the
equation is (3x + 2). The real part of the right hand side complex number is −4.
Therefore,
3x + 2 = −4 ⇒ 3x = −6 giving x = −2.
The imaginary part of the complex number on the left hand side of the equation
is 2y − 4. This corresponds to 6 which is the imaginary part of the right hand side
complex number. So
2y − 4 = 6 ⇒ 2y = 10 ⇒ y = 5.
Hence x = −2 when y = 5.
The symbol ⇒, used in this example, is an implication sign. It is used in place
of ‘implies’. It means the expression to the left has the same meaning as the one
to the right of the symbol. Do not use it in place of equals sign ‘=’.
Example 2.23.
Find all x and y for which (1 + 3i)x + (2 − 5i)y = 7 − i.
Solution:
Multiplying out brackets we have x + 3xi + 2y − 5yi = 7 − i.
Rearranging we have (x + 2y) + (3x − 5y)i = 7 − i leading into equations
x + 2y = 7........(i)
3x − 5y = −1....(ii)
3(i) − (ii) gives
3x + 6y = 21
− 3x − 5y = −1
11y = 22.
Therefore y = 2.
Substituting in equation (i) we have x + 2(2) = 7 ⇒ x + 4 = 7 ⇒ x = 3.
Hence x = 3 when y = 2.

37
Activity 2.24.

1. Find all x and y for which;

(a) (1 + 4i)x + (2 − 3i)y = 10 + 7i

(b) 2 + x + 7i + yi = 8i
(c) (2 + i)x − (3 + 4i)y = 5 + 5i
(d) (3 + 7i) − 2x − 9i − 13 = (5i − yi)
(e) 3y + 4i = 6 + ix
(f) (3 − i)x + (1 + 2i)y = 2 + i
x y
(g) + = 1 + 2i
1+i 2−i

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt different sets of numbers. We started with a
smaller set which is the set of natural numbers. We kept adding other numbers to
this set to derive other sets of numbers. The largest set of numbers this far is the
set of complex numbers.
You also learnt how to add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers.
For addition and subtraction, you learnt that the real parts and imaginary parts
are treated separately. Multiplication follows the usual expansion of brackets.
Division requires the idea of complex conjugation also discussed in this unit.

Activity 2.25 (Unit Test).

1. Say whether each statement is true or false.

√
(a) 122 is a complex number.
√ √
(b) −1 × −1 = 1.
√ √
(c) −1 × −1 = −1.
(d) The product of two complex numbers is a real number.
√ √
(e) −4 × 4 = −4.
√
(f) −100 = 10i.

2. Simplify and write your answer in the form a + bi.

38
 (a) (1 − i)4
(b) (i + 1)(2 − i)−1 − (2 + i17 )
(c) (1 + 3i)(i + 2) + (2 + i)−1
(d) (2 − 3i)(4 − 5i)−2 (1 + 3i) − (7 − i)
(e) i + i2 + i3 + i4 + i5 + ..... + i23
6 + 8i 6 + 8i
(f) + − (7i)−1
1+i 1−i
3. Find real numbers x and y such that,

(a) (−2 + 3i)x + (2 + 4i)y + 8 + 2i = 0

(b) (−3 + 6i)x − (−5 − 3i)y − 3i + 8 = 0
(c) (4x + 3yi) − (2x − yi) = (8 + 12i)

4. Given that z1 = 1 + i, z2 = 2 + i and z3 = 3 + i, find

(a) z1 − z3 + z2
(b) z2 × z3 ÷ z1
2z1 + 5z2
(c)
z3
 
z1 × z3
(d) Re
z2
 
1
(e) Im
z1 z2
5. Find the complex number z in each of the following;

(a) (4 − 5i) − z = (2 + 2i)

(b) (4 − 5i)z = (2 + 2i)
(c) (4 − 5i) + z = (2 + 2i)
(d) 4i(−2 − 8i)z = (3 + i)(1 + 2i)
(e) −6i = (4 + 2i)(5 − 9i) + 3i(4 + 2i)z

6. Let z = 2 − 2i and w = 3 + 7i. Show that

(a) z × w = z × w
(b) z + w = z + w

39
 Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.7
1. False 2. True 3. True 4. False [Link] 6. False 7. False 8. False 9. True 10.
False [Link]
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.10
1
1. −i 2. 1 3. i 4. − 5. 0
i
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.13
(a) 8 − 3i (b) 1 + 2i (d) −5 − 3i (e) 1 + 2i (h) 7 + 6i (m) 10i (l) 15 − 12i (o)
25 + 10i
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.16
(a) 2 − 19i (d) i (e) −8i (g) 104976 (j) −24i (k) −64 (l) 5 (m) 168 + 168i
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.18

1. (a) 23 + 4i (b) −13 − 8i (or −8i − 13) (c) 2 − 16i (d) 7 (e) −19i

2. −10i

Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.21

22 31 17 12 9 2 11
(a) − 125i (e) − − (f) + i (h) − i (k) −3 − 3i
25 2 2 2 25 25 125 125
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.24
(a) x = 4, y = 3 (b) x = −2, y = 1 (c) x = 1, y = −1 (d) x = −5, y = 7 (g)
x = −2, y = 5
Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) False (e) False (f) True
7 6 3 36 55
2. (a) −4 (b) − − i (c) − + i (e) −1 (f) 6 + i
5 5 5 5 7
3. (a) x = 2, y = −2 (b) x = 1, y = 1 (c) x = 4, y = 3
8 3
4. (a) −i (d) (e) −
5 10
3 1 41 18
5. (a) z = 2 − 7i (c) z = −2 + 7i (d) z = − i (e) z = − + i
8 8 15 15

40
Unit 3

Set Theory

3.1 Introduction
Welcome to Unit three, set theory. This unit provides an overview of the meaning
of the set and how it is used to solve real life problems. You will learn notations
used in set theory, set operations and use of Venn diagrams to solve real life
problems related to sets.

3.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define sets

2. Use appropriate notation in set theory

3. Use Venn diagrams to solve practical questions involving sets.

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

• Set

• Elements or members

• Union

41
 • Intersection

• Empty set

• complement

• Universal set

• Venn diagram

• Roster notation

• Set builder notation

• Finite sets

• subsets

• disjoint sets

3.3 Definition and Notation

Definition 3.1. A set is a well-defined collection of objects; that is, we can de-
termine whether or not any given object x belongs to the set.

The objects that belong to a set are called its elements or members. We
denote sets by upper case letters A, B, C, ... and its elements by lower case letters
a, b, c, .... If x is an element of the set A, we write x ∈ A, otherwise we write x ∈
/ A.
A set A may be described by listing all of its elements in a pair of curly brackets
{}. Examples of sets include V = {a, e, i, o, u} and C = {Blantyre, Lilongwe,
Mzuzu}.
For sets with many elements, it is allowed to produce only an implied list of
all elements of the set. The roster notation is a complete or implied list of all
the elements of a particular set. Examples of roster notation are A = {x, y, z} and
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, ..., 19} defining sets with 3 and 10 elements respectively.

42
3.4 Set Builder Notation
A set A may also be described by defining the properties that its elements must
satisfy. This is called set builder notation.
For example, A = {2n|n ∈ N} which is read as ‘A is the set of elements 2n
such that n is a natural number.’

Activity 3.2.

1. Write each set in set builder notation;

(a) A = {0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 9}

(b) B = {3, 6, 9, 12, ..., 81}
(c) C = {27, 64, 125, 216, 343}
(d) D = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
(e) E = {January, February, March, April, May, June}
(f) F = {−8, −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
(g) G = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}
(h) H = {21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63}

2. Write each set in roster notation;

(a) A = {x|x is an integer less than 7}

(b) B = {y|y ∈ N, y ≥ 10}
(c) C ={x|x is an odd integer, 1 ≤ x ≤ 17}
(d) D = {y|y ∈ N, y < 0}
(e) E = {z|z ∈ Z, −14 ≤ z < 3}

3.5 Finite, Infinite and Empty Sets

Definition 3.3. A set A is finite if all elements of A can be listed, otherwise it
is infinite.

Example 3.4.

1. The set V = {a, e, i, o, u} is finite.

2. The set X = {2, 4, 6, 8, ....} is infinite.

43
 3. Each of the sets N, Z, Q, R and C is infinite.

For a finite set A, the number of elements in A is denoted by n(A) and is

also called the cardinality of A.

Example 3.5.

Find n(A) given that A = {1, 2, 3, ....., 20}.

Solution
It is clear that the set A has 20 elements. Hence n(A) = 20.

Definition 3.6. An empty or null set is a set without elements and is denoted
by φ.

Example 3.7.

1. Consider the set X = {x|x ∈ Z, 8 < x < 9}. This is the set of integers
between 8 and 9. It is clear that this set is empty since there is no integer
between 8 and 9.

2. The set Y = {y|y ∈ N, y ≤ 0} is also empty.

Activity 3.8.

Identify each of the following sets as finite, infinite or empty

1. {a|a ∈ R, −1 < a ≤ 3}

2. {x|x ∈ Z, 9 < x < 10}

3. {z|z ∈ N, 2 < z ≤ 17}

4. {y|y ∈ N, y ≤ 0}

5. {x|x ∈ R, x ≥ 1, x ≤ 1}

6. {z|z ∈ Q, 1 < z < 2}

7. {y|y ∈ Z, −3 ≤ y < 12}

44
3.6 Subsets and Equality of Sets
Definition 3.9. A set A is a subset of another set B, written A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A,
if every element of A is also an element of B.

If A ⊂ B, then we also say that A is contained in B or B contains A.

Example 3.10.

1. {3, 4} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

2. N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.

Remark 3.11.

1. An empty set is a subset of any set, i.e, φ ⊂ A for any set A.

2. Every set is a subset of itself, i.e, A ⊂ A for any set A.

Definition 3.12. Two sets A and B are equal, written A = B, if and only if
A ⊂ B and A ⊃ B.

The definition above implies that the sets A and B are equal if every element
of A is also an element of B and vice versa. Hence A = B means A and B have
exactly the same elements. If A is not equal to B, we write A 6= B.
When considering equality of sets, the order in which the elements are listed is
not important. Furthermore, repetition of elements is irrelevant.

Example 3.13.

Let

A = {x, y, z}
B = {y, x, z}
C = {w, x, y}
D = {w, x, x, y, y, y}.

Then A = B, C = D, A 6= C and B 6= D.
A set A is a proper subset of another set B if A ⊂ B but A 6= B.

45
3.7 The Universal Set and Set Operations
3.7.1 Universal Set and Complement
Consider the set of all students in your class. Consider also the set of students in
your class who play Tennis. Clearly, the second set is a subset of the first set. The
set of volleyball players in your class is also a subset of the first set. Notice that
there are many sets that are subsets of the first set. The first set is the set under
discussion in this case.
Definition 3.14. The universal set is the set of all elements under discussion.
We will denote the universal set by ξ throughout the text.
Definition 3.15. Let A be any set such that A ⊂ ξ. Then the complement of a
set A, denoted by A0 , is the set of all elements in the universal set which are not
in A, i.e,
A0 = {x|x ∈ ξ, x ∈/ A}.
Example 3.16.
Let ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Then A0 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

3.7.2 The Union of Sets

Definition 3.17. The union of two sets, A and B, written A ∪ B, is the set of
elements that belong to A or B or both, i.e,
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
The key word in the definition above is ‘or’. So the union of A and B has
elements which are in either A or B.
Example 3.18.
Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 9}. Then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 9}.

Properties of Union of Sets

The following properties are stated without proof.
Proposition 3.19. Let ξ be the universal set and A, B and C any sets. Then
1. A ∪ A = A

2. A ∪ B = B ∪ A

46
 3. A ∪ φ = A

4. A ∪ ξ = ξ

5. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C

6. A ⊂ (A ∪ B).

3.7.3 The Intersection of Sets

Definition 3.20. The intersection of sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set
of elements which are in both A and B, i.e,

A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

The definition above implies that the intersection of two sets is the set of
elements that are common to both sets.

Example 3.21.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, then A ∩ B = {4, 5, 6}.

Properties of Intersection

Proposition 3.22. Let ξ be the universal set and A, B and C any sets. Then

1. A ∩ A = A

2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

3. A ∩ φ = φ

4. A ∩ ξ = A

5. (A ∩ B) ⊂ A

6. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

Definition 3.23. Two sets A and B are disjoint if and only if there intersection
is empty, that is, if A ∩ B = φ.

47
3.7.4 Difference of Sets
Definition 3.24. The difference of two sets, A and B, denoted A \ B or A − B,
is the set of elements of A which are not in B i.e.,

A \ B = {x|x ∈ A, x ∈
/ B},

Note that the definition of difference of two sets above does not in any way
involve the universal set.

Definition 3.25. The symmetric difference between A and B, denoted by A4B,

is the union of A \ B and B \ A. That is

A4B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B).

Example 3.26.

Let A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 21, 23}.
Then

1. A \ B = {2, 19}

2. B \ A = {1, 9, 15, 21}

3. A4B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) = {1, 2, 9, 15, 19, 21}.

Remark 3.27.

Let ξ be the universal set and A any set such that A ⊂ ξ. Using the definition
of difference of sets we can redefine the complement of the set A as

A0 = ξ \ A.

We state one of the popular results in set theory without proof. The proof is
available in many elementary algebra books.

Theorem 3.28 (Demorgan’s Laws). Let A and B be any sets. Then

a. (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0

b. (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

Example 3.29.

48
 Let ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {3, 4, 5} and C = {1, 6}. Find
A0 ∩ B 0 .

Solution
By Demorgan’s Laws, A0 ∩B 0 = (A∪B)0 . Now A∪B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and, therefore,
(A ∪ B)0 = {1}.

Activity 3.30.

Let ξ = {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60}, X = {10, 20, 30, 40}, Y =
{15, 20, 25} and Z = {0, 20, 40, 60}. Find

1. X ∩ Y

2. X ∩ Y ∩ Z

3. X ∪ (Y ∩ Z)

4. (X 0 ∩ Y 0 ) − Z

5. (X ∩ Y ) ∪ Z

6. X − Y

7. X4Z

8. Y 0 4Z

9. Z 0 − Y

3.8 Venn Diagrams

Let ξ be the universal set and A, B, C.... be any subsets of ξ. We can draw a
diagram to show sets ξ and A, B, C.... called a venn diagram.
Circles, each representing a different set (A, B, C...), are drawn inside a square
which represents ξ. Set operations are shown as in the following diagrams.
Venn diagrams are used to solve problems involving sets. We look at some
examples.

Example 3.31.

49
 Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess, carrom and
scrabble. 18 play chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play carrom. 7 play chess and
scrabble, 12 play scrabble and carrom and 4 play chess, carrom and scrabble. Find
the number of students who play

(a) chess and carrom.

(b) chess, carrom but not scrabble.

Solution

Figure 3.1: Venn Diagram 1

We use the diagram in Figure 3.1. Clearly h = 0 and b = 4.

c = 12 − 4 = 8 and f = 7 − 4 = 3.

50
 20 play scrabble, so e + c + b + f = 20 ⇒ e + 8 + 4 + 3 = 20 giving e = 5.
We are remaining with a, d and g.
18 play Chess, so g + b + a + f = 18 ⇒ g + 4 + a + 3 = 18 giving g = 11 − a.
27 play Carrom, so a + b + c + d = 27 ⇒ a + 4 + 8 + d = 27 giving d = 15 − a.
Now
a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = 40
a + 4 + 8 + (15 − a) + 5 + 3 + (11 − a) = 40
46 − a = 40
a = 6.
The new Venn diagram, with numbers, is given in Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2: Venn Diagram 2

From Figure 3.2,

(a) Number of students who play Chess and Carrom is 6 + 4 = 10
(b) Number of students who play Chess, Carrom but not scrabble is 6.
Example 3.32.
In a class of 60 students, all students play either Football or Cricket. If 20
students play both Football and Cricket, determine the number of students who
play cricket only, if the number of students who play Football is 14 more than the
number of students who play Cricket.
Solution
Let F = {students who play football} and C = {students who play cricket}
(See Figure 3.3).
Since all students play either football or cricket, d = 0. Clearly a = 20. Also
from the information given
c = b + 14.

51
 Figure 3.3: Venn Diagram 3

Therefore
60 − 34
b + (b + 14) + 20 = 60 ⇒ 2b + 34 = 60 ⇒ b = = 13.
2
Hence 13 students play cricket only.

Activity 3.33.

1. If A and B are two sets such that A ∪ B has 60 elements, A has 32 elements
and B has 40 elements, How many elements does A ∩ B have?

2. In a class there are:

• 8 students who play football and hockey,

• 7 students who do not play football or hockey,
• 13 students who play hockey,
• 19 students who play football.

How many students are there in the class?

3. In a group of 40 vendors, 24 sell shoes, 15 sell shirts and 7 sell shirts but not
shoes. How many sell

(a) neither
(b) shoes but not shirts?

52
4. At a picnic attended by 50 people, 21 people participated in the water-balloon
throwing contest, W; 20 people participated in the hot-dog eating contest,
H; and 25 people participated in the sack race, S. Of these, seven people
participated in the hot-dog eating contest and the sack race, four people
participated in the water-balloon throwing contest and the hot-dog eating
contest, and eight people participated in the sack race and the water-balloon
throwing contest.

(a) How many people participated in all three events?

(b) How many people participated in exactly one event?
(c) How many people did not participate in any of the other events after
participating in the hot-dog eating contest?

5. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each
person likes at least one of the two drinks. How many like both cold drinks
and soft drinks?

6. There are 35 students in art class and 57 students in dance class. Find the
number of students who are either in art class or in dance class.

(a) When two classes meet at different hours and 12 students are enrolled
in both activities.
(b) When two classes meet at the same hour.

7. In a class of 50 students, 6 take both History and Geography, 10 take Geog-

raphy and 8 do not take History. How many take

(a) neither
(b) History.

8. In a class there are 30 students.

• 21 students like Maths,

• 16 students like English,
• 6 students don’t like Maths or English .

How many students like both Maths and English?

9. A veterinarian surveys 26 of his patrons. He discovers that 14 have dogs, 10

have cats, and 5 have fish. 4 have dogs and cats, 3 have dogs and fish, and
1 has a cat and fish. If no one has all three kinds of pets, how many patrons
have none of these pets?

53
 Unit Summary
In this unit you have learnt that a set is a collection of objects. You have
also learnt notation used in set theory. Set operations; union, intersection and
difference, were discussed.
The universal set and complements of a set were also described. Finally, you
learnt how to use Venn diagrams to solve real life problems.

Activity 3.34 (Unit Test).

1. Say whether each statement is true or false.

(a) Let ξ be the universal set and R any set such that R ⊂ ξ. Then
R ∪ R0 = ξ.
(b) (A ∪ (A ∩ B)) ∩ A = A for any sets A and B.
(c) Let X and Y be sets. If X ∪ Y = Y then X ⊂ Y .
(d) Let S, R and T be sets. If S ∪ R = S ∪ T then R = T .
(e) For any sets A and B, (A ∩ B) ⊃ (A ∪ B).
2. Find E4D given that E = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and D = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2}.
3. Let ξ = {1, 2, 3, ..., 10}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {2, 3, 8, 9}.
Find
(a) A0 ∩ B
(b) A − C
(c) (B ∪ C) − A
(d) B − (C 0 )0
4. If X and Y are two sets such that X has 30 elements and X ∪ Y has 50
elements and X ∩ Y has 8 elements, how many elements does Y have?
5. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals
in dance, 12 medals in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals
went to a total of 45 persons and only 4 persons got medals in all the three
categories, how many received medals in exactly two of these categories?
6. In a survey, Sam found that 38 people liked product A, 36 liked product B,
and 39 liked product C. 24 people liked both products A and B, 20 people
liked products C and A, 18 people liked product B and C, and 9 liked all the
three products. Find how many liked product C only?

54
7. In a group, 25 persons like tea or coffee, of these 15 like tea and 6 like both
coffee and tea. How many like coffee?

8. In a class, 60% students like maths whereas 50% like science. What per cent
of students like both maths and science?

9. A guidance counsellor is planning schedules for 30 students. Every student

will take either French or English or Latin. 16 students say they want to
take French, 16 want to take English, and 11 want to take Latin. 5 say they
want to take both French and Latin, and of these, 3 want to take English as
well. 5 want only Latin, and 8 want only English. How many students want
French only?

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.2
1. (a) A = {a|a ∈ Z, 0 ≤ a ≤ 9}
(b) B = {3x|x ∈ N, 1 ≤ x ≤ 27}
(c) C = {x3 |x ∈ Z, 3 ≤ x ≤ 7}

2. (a) A = {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

(b) B = {10, 11, 12, 13, ....}
(c) C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17}
(d) D = φ
Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.8
1. Infinite 2. Empty 3. Finite 4. Empty 5. Finite 6. Infinite 7. Finite
Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.30

1. X ∩ Y = {20}

2. X ∩ Y ∩ Z = {20}

3. X ∪ (Y ∩ Z) = {10, 20, 30, 40} = X

4. (X 0 ∩ Y 0 ) − Z = {5, 15, 35, 45, 50, 55}

5. (X ∩ Y ) ∪ Z = {0, 20, 40, 60} = Z

6. X − Y = {10, 30, 40}

8. Y 0 4Z = {5, 10, 20, 30, 35, 45, 50, 55}

55
Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.33

1. 12 elements

2. 31 students

3. (a) 9 (b) 16

4. (a) 3 (b) 37 (c) 12

6. (a) 80 (b) 92

Suggested Solutions Unit Test

1. (a) True (b) True (c) True (d) False (e) False

2. E4D = {−4, −3, 3, 4}

3. (a) A0 ∩ B = {5, 6} (b) A − C = {1, 4} (c) (B ∪ C) − A = {5, 6, 8, 9} (d)

B − C = {4, 5, 6}

6. 10

8. 10

9. 7

56
Unit 4

Relations and Functions

4.1 Introduction
Welcome to Unit 4; relations and functions. In unit 3, we discussed sets. We
looked at a set as a collection of objects which have something in common.
In this Unit, we will look at a link between members of different sets called
relations. We will introduce a function as an example of a relation. Types of
functions, bijective functions, inverse of a function and combination of two or
more functions will also be discussed.
Finally, we will discuss exponential and logarithmic functions. We will look at
how exponential functions are used in solving population problems.

4.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe different types of functions

2. Find the inverse of a function, if it exists

3. Use basic operations to combine functions

4. Find the composition of functions

5. Determine whether a function is odd or even

6. Solve exponential and logarithmic equations

57
 7. Solve population problems using exponential and logarithmic functions

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:
• relations
• functions
• one-to-one or injective functions
• onto or surjective functions
• bijective function
• inverse of a function
• composite function
• even function
• odd function
• algebraic function
• transcendental function
• rational function
• exponential function
• logarithmic function
• polynomials
• constant function
• identity function
• domain
• co-domain
• range

58
4.3 Relations
A relation is a link between members of two sets. Examples of relations in real life
situations include
1. ‘is a son of’
2. ‘is the same age as’
3. ‘is a classmate of’.
Relations considered in this course are mathematical in nature. Examples of
such relations include
1. ‘is a square of’
2. ‘is a divisor of’
3. ‘is a multiple of’.
We now give a mathematical definition of a relation.
Definition 4.1. A relation R from X to Y is defined as a set of ordered pairs
(x, y) with x in X and y in Y , i.e.,

R = {(x, y)|x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.

Example 4.2.
Consider the relation ‘is a multiple of’ from X = {15, 20} to Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20}.
The set of ordered pairs for this relation is

R = {(15, 1), (15, 3), (15, 5), (15, 15), (20, 1), (20, 2), (20, 4), (20, 5), (20, 10), (20, 20)}.

This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.

Note that the relation in example 4.2 assigns, to each element of X, more than
one element of Y .
Example 4.3.
Consider another relation in which each element of the set X = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
is squared to give an element of Y = {0, 1, 4}. The set of ordered pairs is

R = {(−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4)}.

This is illustrated in Figure 4.2.

Note that in Figure 4.2 every element of X is related to a unique element of
Y . This is an example of important relations called functions.

59
 Figure 4.1: is a multiple of

Figure 4.2: is a square root of

60
4.4 Functions
Definition 4.4. A function f from a set X to a another set Y is a relation that
assigns to each element x of X a unique element y of Y .
The element x of X is the argument of f . X is the domain of the function
f and Y is the co-domain of f . The element y of Y is the image of x under f
and is denoted f (x) read ‘f of x’ while x is a pre-image of y. It is not always the
case that all elements of Y are images under a given function. The range of f is
the subset of Y whose elements are all possible values of f (x) for x in X.
A function f from X to Y is denoted by any of the following;
1. f : X → Y .

2. f : x 7→ f (x).

3. f (x).
Example 4.5.
Let f be a function with domain R such that f (x) = x2 . Find
i. f (6).
√
ii. f ( 3).

iii. the range of f .

Solution

i. To find f (6) we substitute 6 for x in f (x) = x2 . That is f (6) = 62 = 36.

√ √
ii. Similarly f ( 3) = ( 3)2 = 3.

iii. The range of f consists of all real numbers of the form x2 for x ∈ R. But the
square of any real number is non-negative. Thus the range of f is the set of
non-negative real numbers.

Example 4.6.
x−1
A function f is given by f (x) = . Find f (−1).
x+1
Solution
−1 − 1 −2
f (−1) = = which is undefined (we do not divide by 0!). Hence
−1 + 1 0
f (−1) does not exist. This means that −1 is not in the domain of f .

61
4.5 Types of Functions
There are two main categories of functions; algebraic and transcendental func-
tions.
Definition 4.7. An algebraic function is a function that can be expressed in terms
of finite sums, differences, products, quotients or roots of polynomial functions.
Transcendental functions are non-algebraic functions, i.e., functions that can
not be expressed in terms of polynomials such as exponential, logarithmic and
trigonometric. We will discuss algebraic, exponential and logarithmic functions
in this unit. Trigonometric functions are covered in semester 2.
Definition 4.8. A polynomial over R in x is an expression of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + ... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 (4.1)

where n is a positive integer and an , an−1 , an−2 , ....., a2 , a1 , a0 are real numbers.
The numbers an , an−1 , an−2 , ....., a2 , a1 and a0 are called coefficients of the
polynomial. For example, the expression 7x3 + 4x + 6 = 7x3 + 0x2 + 4x + 6 is a
polynomial with n = 3, a3 = 7, a2 = 0, a1 = 4 and a0 = 6.
In Equation 4.1 if an 6= 0 then we have a polynomial of degree n. That is the
degree of a polynomial is the highest power n of x. For instance, the polynomial
6x4 + x3 + 4 has degree 4.
A linear polynomial, a1 x + a0 , has degree 1. A quadratic polynomial,
a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , has degree 2 and a cubic polynomial has degree 3. Note that
the choice of the letters is purely arbitrary otherwise a quadratic polynomial is
sometimes written as ax2 + bx + c.
A special type of a linear polynomial function is an identity function which is
obtained when a1 = 1 and a0 = 0.
Definition 4.9. An identity function, f , is a function of the form f (x) = x for
all x in the domain of f .
An identity polynomial function from R to itself has the property that the image
of an element a ∈ R is a itself. For example, f (19) = 19 and f (−6.35) = −6.35.
In equation 4.1, if an = an−1 = an−2 = ..... = a2 = a1 = a0 = 0 then we have
the zero polynomial and if an = an−1 = an−2 = ..... = a2 = a1 = 0 but a0 6= 0
then we have a constant polynomial. The zero polynomial is an example of a
constant polynomial.
Definition 4.10. A constant function is a function of the form f (x) = a where
a ∈ R.

62
Example 4.11.
Let f (x) = −3 (a constant function), then f (7) = −3, f (4.5) = −3 and
f (−12) = −3.
Rational functions are ratios of polynomials.
Definition 4.12. A rational function is a function of the form
p(x)
R(x) = (4.2)
q(x)

where both p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) 6= 0.

x+2 x
Examples of rational functions include and 6 3
. Since in
4x + 3 x − 2x + x + 7
4.2 q(x) 6= 0, the domain of a rational function excludes all real numbers which
result into q(x) being equal to 0.
Example 4.13.
4
State the domain of the function f (x) = .
x
Solution
Any real number will have an image under this function except x = 0. Hence
the domain is {all real numbers x such that x 6= 0}.
Example 4.14.
2x + 7
What values of x must be excluded from the domain of f (x) = ?
3x − 2
Solution
This function will produce an image except when 3x − 2 = 0, i.e., x = 2/3. So
2/3 must be excluded.

Activity 4.15.
2x
1. Let f (x) = . Find f (3) and f (4).
x−2
2. Let p(x) = 12. Find p(2) and p(−2).

3. If g(x) = 3x + 1, find g(x2 + 1).

4. Determine the domain of each function.

63
 √
(a) f (x) = 2x + 10
1
(b) f (x) = 2
x − 6x − 7
(c) f (x) = 5x − 4
x
(d) f (x) =
1−x
x+3
(e) f (x) =
x−5
5. Let g(t) = t2 − 4t − b. Find a non-zero value of b such that g(b) = b.

6. If f (x) = x2 − 2x + 4, find the image of 4.

7. Given that f (x) = 4x−7 and g(x) = x+2, solve the equation f (2x) = 7g(x).
2x + 2
8. Let g(x) = . Find the value of x such that g(x) = −1.
x−5
9. If f (x) = −2x2 + 6x + r and f (0) = −1, find the value of r.

10. If h(t) = 3t + 2, what is the value of t which is mapped onto 8?

11. Given that h(t) = t2 − 3ta − 4 and h(1) = −2, find the value of a.

12. Let q(x) = ax + b where a and b are real numbers. If q(−2) = 7 and
q(2) = −1, find the values of a and b.

4.6 One-to-one and Onto Functions

Definition 4.16. A function with domain X and co-domain Y is one-to-one or
injective if either of the following equivalent conditions is satisfied
1. whenever a 6= b in the domain, then f (a) 6= f (b) in the co-domain.

2. whenever f (a) = f (b) in the co-domain, then a = b in the domain.

By Definition 4.16, a function is one-to-one if no two elements in the domain
are mapped to the same element in the co-domain.
Definition 4.17. A function f from X to Y is onto or surjective if and only if
every element of Y is in the range of f , i.e., for all y ∈ Y there exists x ∈ X such
that f (x) = y.
Definition 4.17 implies that a function is onto if and only if its range is equal
to its co-domain.

64
Definition 4.18. A function f is a bijective function (or a bijection) if f is
both one-to-one and onto.
Example 4.19.
Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b}. The function f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)} is
onto but not one-to-one. (See Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3:

Note that we can not have a one-to-one function from X to Y since there are
too many elements in X for them to map uniquely to Y .
Example 4.20.
Let X = {a, b} and Y = {1, 2, 3}. The function g = {(a, 3), (b, 1)} is one-to-one
but not onto. (See Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4:

It is not possible to define an onto function from X to Y since there are not
enough elements in X to map to all the elements of Y .
Example 4.21.

65
 Figure 4.5:

Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3}. The function h = {(a, 1), (b, 3), (c, 2)} is
bijective. (See Figure 4.5).
To show that a given function is one-to-one, we use the condition (especially
the second condition) given in Definition 4.16. To show that a function is not
one-to-one, we need only find two distinct elements in the domain that produce
the same function value.
Example 4.22.
Show whether each of the following functions is one-to-one or not;
i. f (x) = 3x + 2

ii. g(x) = x2

iii. h(x) = 2x2 − 3

x+4
iv. p(x) =
x−4
Solution

i. Suppose f (a) = f (b) for a and b in the domain of f . Then

3a + 2 = 3b + 2
3a = 3b
a = b.

Hence f is one-to-one.

ii. g(x) = x2 is not one-to-one since f (2) = f (−2) = 4 but 2 6= −2.

iii. Similarly h(x) = 2x2 − 3 is not one-to-one.

66
 iv. Let p(a) = p(b). Then

a+4 b+4
=
a−4 b−4
(a + 4)(b − 4) = (b + 4)(a − 4)
ab − 4a + 4b − 16 = ab − 4b + 4a − 16
−8a = −8b
a = b.

Hence p(x) is one-to-one.

To prove that a function f from X to Y is onto, we take an arbitrary element

of Y and show that it has a pre-image. To show that f is not onto we need to
produce a counter-example, i.e., any element of Y which has no pre-image in X
under f .

Example 4.23.

Let f : Z → Z such that f (x) = x + 1. Then f is onto since the pre-image of

any n ∈ Z is n − 1 (the result of subtracting 1 from any integer is an integer).

Example 4.24.

Let g : N → N such that g(x) = x + 1. Any element n ∈ N (except 1), in the

range of g, has pre-image n − 1. But 1 ∈ N has no pre-image since 1 − 1 = 0 ∈
/ N.
Hence g is not onto.

Proposition 4.25. Let X and Y be finite sets and let f : X → Y .

i. If f is one-to-one, then n(X) ≤ n(Y ).

ii. If f is onto, then n(X) ≥ n(Y ).

iii. If f is a bijection, then n(X) = n(Y ).

4.7 Inverse of a Function

Definition 4.26. Let f be a function with domain X and range R. The inverse
of f , if it exists, is the function, denoted f −1 , with domain R and range X such
that, for all x in X and for all y in R, we have:

y = f (x) if and only if x = f −1 (y).

67
 Figure 4.6: A function f and its inverse f −1

From the definition above, not every function has an inverse. A function is said
to be invertible if its inverse exists. (Se Figure 4.6).
Suppose a function f is not one-to-one. Then there exists two elements x1 and
x2 in X such that x1 6= x2 but f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = r in Y . The inverse relation
gives x1 and x2 as the images of r. Since a function assigns to each element in the
domain a unique element, this inverse relation is not a function. Hence we have
the following proposition.
Proposition 4.27. A function f is invertible if and only if it is one-to-one.
The inverse of a function f is also a one-to-one function. Given a function f
to find f −1 follow the following steps;
a. Verify that f is one-to-one, otherwise the inverse does not exist.
b. Replace f (x) with y.
c. Solve for x.
d. Replace x with f −1 (x) and y with x.
Example 4.28.

68
 Find the inverse of each of the following functions;
1. f (x) = x2

2. f (x) = 2x + 3
x−2
3. f (x) = (x 6= 3)
x−3
Solution

1. By Example 4.22, f (x) = x2 is not one-to-one. Hence the inverse does not
exist.

2. a. Clearly f (x) = 2x + 3 is one-to-one.

b. Let y = 2x + 3.
y−3
c. Then 2x = y − 3 giving x = .
2
x−3
d. Hence f −1 (x) = .
2
x−2
3. Clearly f (x) = is one-to-one.
x−3
x−2
Let y = . Then y(x − 3) = x − 2 ⇒ yx − 3y = x − 2 ⇒ yx − x = 3y − 2
x−3
3y − 2
⇒ x(y − 1) = 3y − 2 giving x = .
y−1
3x − 2
Therefore f −1 (x) = .
x−1
A function f is self-inverse if f (x) = f −1 (x). For example, an identity func-
tion f (x) = x is self-inverse.

Activity 4.29.

1. Show whether each function is one-to-one or not.

(a) f (x) = 2x − 3
(b) f (x) = 6x2 + 17
4x − 5
(c) f (x) =
7
7
(d) f (x) =
4x − 5

69
 2. For each function f (x) below, find f −1 (x).

(a) 3x + 2
x+4
(b)
3x − 5
(c) (5x − 1)3
1
(d)
3x + 1
3. If f (x) = 2x + 18, find f −1 (40).

4. Verify that the function f (x) = 4 − x is self-inverse.

4.8 Combining Functions

4.8.1 Arithmetic Operations
We can perform arithmetic operations with functions. That is we can add, sub-
tract, multiply and divide functions.

Definition 4.30. Let f (x) and g(x) be functions. Then

1. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) is the sum of functions f (x) and g(x).

2. (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) is the difference between functions f (x) and g(x).

3. (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) is the product of functions f (x) and g(x).

f f (x)
4. If g(x) 6= 0, (x) = is the quotient function.
g g(x)
The domain of f +g (and that of f −g and f g) is the intersection of the domain
f
of f and the domain of g. The domain of is the set of all elements x in the
g
intersection of the domain of f and the domain of g such that g(x) 6= 0.

Example 4.31.

Let f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 4 − x2 be functions. Find

1. (f + g)(x)

2. (f − g)(2)

3. (f g)(−1)

70
 g
4. (0).
f
Solution

1.

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

= (2x + 3) + (4 − x2 )
= 7 + 2x − x2

2.

(f − g)(2) = f (2) − g(2)

= (2(2) + 3) + (4 − (2)2 )
= 7.

Note that we can find (f − g)(2) by first finding f (x) − g(x) then plug in 2.

3.

(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
= (2x + 3)(4 − x2 )
= 8x − 2x3 + 12 − 3x2
= −2x3 − 3x2 + 8x + 12.

So

(f g)(−1) = −2(−1)3 − 3(−1)2 + 8(−1) + 12

= 2 − 3 − 8 + 12
= 3.

g g(0) 4 − (0)2 4
4. (0) = = = .
f f (0) 2(0) + 3 3

4.8.2 Composition of Functions

Given two functions, we can construct a new function by using the range of the
first function as the domain of the second function. (See Figure 4.7).

Definition 4.32. Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two functions. The compo-

sition of f and g, from X to Z, is given by (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).

71
 Figure 4.7: Composition of f and g

The domain of g ◦ f is the set of all x in the domain of f such that f (x) is in
the domain of g.
Example 4.33.
Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 5. Find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .
Solution
f ◦ g = f (g(x)) = [g(x)]2 = (2x + 5)2 = 4x2 + 20x + 25.
g ◦ f = g(f (x)) = 2f (x) + 5 = 2x2 + 5.
Example 4.34.
2
Functions f and g are defined by f : x 7→ and g : x 7→ 3x − 2. Find (a)
x+1
f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) (f ◦ g)−1 .
Solution
2 2 2
(a) f ◦ g = f (g(x)) = = = .
g(x) + 1 (3x − 2) + 1 3x − 1
 
2 6 4 − 2x
(b) g ◦ f = g(f (x)) = 3f (x) − 2 = 3 −2= −2= .
x+1 x+1 x+1
(c) (f ◦ g)−1 = (f (g(x)))−1 .
2
Let y = . Then y(3x − 1) = 2 ⇒ 3xy − y = 2 ⇒ 3xy = y + 2 giving
3x − 1
y+2
x= .
3y

72
 x+2
Hence (f (g(x)))−1 = .
3x

Note in the examples above that, in general, f (g(x)) 6= g(f (x)). We say that
the composition of functions is not commutative.

Example 4.35.

Given that f (x) = 3x − 2, find a function g such that f (g(x)) = 12x + 7.

Solution
Clearly g is a linear function. Let g(x) = ax + b.
Then f (g(x)) = 3g(x) − 2 = 3(ax + b) − 2 = 3ax + 3b − 2.
Hence 3ax + 3b − 2 = 12x + 7.
Equating coefficients of x we have 3a = 12 giving a = 4.
Equating constant terms, 3b − 2 = 7 ⇒ 3b = 9 giving b = 3.
Hence g(x) = 4x + 3.
A function f is related to its inverse f −1 in terms of compositions. We state
this relationship in the Theorem below without proof.

Theorem 4.36. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain X and range R.

Then

i. f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x in X.

ii. f (f −1 (y)) = y for all y in R.

Activity 4.37.

1. Let f (x) = 2x − 1, g(x) = x2 − 3x − 6 and h(x) = x2 + 4x − 4. Find

(a) (f + g)(x)
(b) (h − g)(3)
h
(c) (0)
g
(d) (f g + h)(2)
(e) (g − f + h)(−1)
r
2. Let r(x) = 3x + 1 and s(x) = −2x + 5. Find r(x) − s(x) and (−3).
s
3. Find the composite function p(q(x)) given that;

73
 (a) p = {(3, 6), (7, 5), (0, 9)} and q = {(5, 0), (2, 3), (4, 7)}
(b) p = {(1, 6), (5, 0), (4, 7)} and q = {(6, 1), (7, 4), (0, 5)}
4. Find f (g(−1)) and g(f (−1)) given that;
(a) f (x) = x − 2 and g(x) = 5x + 3.
x−1
(b) f (x) = and g(x) = 4x − 3
4
2
(c) f (x) = 2x and g(x) =
x
5. If g(x) = 3x2 + 5x − 6 and h(x) = −2x2 − 6x + 7, find (g − h)(−2).
x−4
6. If r(x) = 3x + b and s(x) = , for what value of b is r(s(x)) = s(r(x))?
3
7. The formula f (x) = x + 273 converts Celsius temperature to Kelvin. The
5
formula g(x) = (x − 32) converts Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius. Write
9
a formula that will convert Fahrenheit temperature to Kelvin.
8. If f (x) = 8x + 5 and g(x) = x2 − 7, find 2f (3) − 4g(−2).

4.9 Even and Odd Functions

Any given function is either even or odd or neither.
Definition 4.38. A function f is even if and only if f (−x) = f (x) for all x in
the domain of f .
In this case, the equation y = f (x) is unchanged if −x is substituted for x.
Definition 4.39. A function f is odd if and only if f (−x) = −f (x) for every x
in the domain of f .
For an odd function, we get negative function value if −x replaces x.
Example 4.40.
The function f (x) = x2 + 6 is even since f (−x) = (−x)2 + 6 = x2 + 6 = f (x).
Example 4.41.
The function f (x) = 3x3 −x is odd since f (−x) = 3(−x)3 −(−x) = −3x3 +x =
−f (x).
A function is neither even nor odd if it does not satisfy the conditions given in
the definitions above.

74
Example 4.42.

Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd or neither.

1. f (x) = 4x4 − 3x2 + 5

2. g(x) = x3 + x2 − 3

3. h(x) = 9x5 − 8x3 + 4x

Solution

1. f (−x) = 4(−x)4 − 3(−x)2 + 5 = 4x4 − 3x2 + 5 = f (x).

Hence f is even.

2. g(−x) = (−x)3 + (−x)2 − 3 = −x3 + x2 − 3. Here g(−x) 6= g(x) so that g is

not even. Also g(−x) 6= −g(x) implying that g is not odd.
Hence g is neither even nor odd.

3. h(−x) = 9(−x)5 − 8(−x)3 + 4(−x) = −9x5 + 8x3 − 4x = −h(x).

Hence h is odd.

Activity 4.43.

1. Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd or neither.

(a) f (x) = x6 + 4x2 + 20

(b) f (x) = x
(c) f (x) = 25
4−x
(d) f (x) = (x 6= −2)
x+2
(e) f (x) = x5 − 3x3 + 17
x2 + 4
(f) f (x) = 3
x −x
(g) f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 4

75
4.10 Transcendental Functions
4.10.1 Exponential Functions
Definition 4.44. An exponential function is a function of the form f (x) = ax
for every x in R, where a is a constant, a > 0 and a 6= 1.

In Definition 4.44, a is called the base and x is called the exponent or index.
Note that any real number will have an image under the exponential function.
Hence the domain of an exponential function is the whole set of real numbers.
However, not every real number has a pre-image under this function. There is
no real number x such that ax is negative. Hence the range of the exponential
function is the set of positive real numbers.

Definition 4.45. A Natural exponential function is a function f (x) = ex where

e is a number whose value is approximately 2.718281828.

You do not need to memorise the value of e given in Definition 4.45. You can
find this value using your scientific calculator when you need it.

Laws of Exponents
In Theorem 4.46, we remind you of the laws of exponents (laws of indices) covered
in secondary school mathematics course.

Theorem 4.46. Let a and b be positive numbers and let x and y be any numbers.
Then

1. ax × ay = ax+y

2. ax ÷ ay = ax−y

3. (ax )y = ax×y
1
4. a−x =
ax
√
5. ax/y = ( y a)x

6. (ab)x = ax × bx
 a x ax
7. = x
b b
It can be shown that an exponential function is a one-to-one function. Hence
exponential functions satisfy the following properties;

76
 1. ax = ay if and only if x = y.

2. For x 6= 0, ax = bx if and only if a = b.

Example 4.47.

Find the values of (a) 10001/3 and (b) 64−5/6 .

Solution

√
(a) 10001/3 = 3
1000 = 10.

1 1 1 1
(b) 64−5/6 = 5/6
= √
6
= 5 = .
64 ( 64)5 2 32

Exponential Equations

An equation of the form ax = b, where a and b are constants (a > 0, a 6= 1)

and x is an unknown number, is an exponential equation. Solving exponential
equation means trying to find the value of x. Laws of exponents and properties of
exponential functions are used in solving exponential equations.

Example 4.48.

Solve the following equations

i. 2x+3 − 24 = 40

a4
ii. ay a2 =
ay+1

Solution

i. 2x+3 − 24 = 40 ⇒ 2x+3 = 64 ⇒ 2x+3 = 26 giving x + 3 = 6.

Hence x = 3.

a4
ii. ay a2 = y+1 ⇒ ay+2 = a4−(y+1) = a3−y ⇒ y + 2 = 3 − y ⇒ 2y = 1 giving
a
1
y= .
2

77
4.10.2 Logarithmic Functions
Definition 4.49. A logarithmic function is a function of the form f (x) = loga x
where a is a positive constant, a 6= 1, and x is any positive real number.

The domain of a logarithmic function is the set of positive real numbers. The
range is the entire set of real numbers.
If a > 0 and a 6= 1 then the exponential function g(x) = ax has inverse
g −1 (x) = loga x. Therefore the statement loga x = y is equivalent to ay = x.

Example 4.50.

Evaluate the following

i. log4 64

ii. log3 1/27

Solution

i. Let log4 64 = y. Then 64 = 4y ⇒ 43 = 4y giving y = 3.

Therefore log4 64 = 3.

ii. Let y = log3 1/27. Then 1/27 = 3y ⇒ 3−3 = 3y giving y = −3.

Hence log3 1/27 = −3.

We define two special logarithms in Definitions 4.51 and 4.52.

Definition 4.51. A common logarithm is a logarithm with base 10, i.e.,

f (x) = log10 x.

In most cases the number 10 is not included, so the common logarithm is simply
written as log x.

Definition 4.52. A natural logarithm is a logarithm with base e, i.e.,

g(x) = loge x.

A natural logarithm is written in short form as g(x) = ln x.

Laws of Logarithms
Theorem 4.53. Let a, x and y be positive numbers, a 6= 1, and let r be any
number. Then

1. loga a = 1

78
 2. loga 1 = 0

3. loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

 
x
4. loga = loga x − loga y
y
5. loga (xr ) = r loga x

The following properties follow immediately from the laws of logarithms:

1. loga (ax ) = x

2. aloga x = x

3. loga x = loga y if and only if x = y.

Example 4.54.

Express logb x + 2 logb y 2 − logb x2 z as a single logarithm function.

Solution

logb x + 2 logb y 2 − logb x2 z = logb x + logb y 4 − logb x2 z

= logb (xy 4 ) − logb x2 z
 4
xy
= logb
x2 z
 4
y
= logb .
xz

Both common logarithm and natural logarithm of a number can be found using
a calculator. Suppose you have been asked to find the logarithm of a number whose
base is not 10 or e. For most calculators this can not be done directly. You need
to change the base to either 10 or e using the theorem below.
Note that some modern calculators allow you to directly find logarithm of a
number with any base. You do not need this theorem if you have such a calculator.
Therefore it is important that you understand the functions on your calculator.

Theorem 4.55 (Change of base). For any positive integers a, b and m,

logb m
loga m = .
logb a

Proof. Let y = loga m. Then m = ay . Taking logb both sides we have

79
 logb m = logb ay ⇒ logb m = y logb a.
logb m
Therefore y = .
logb a
Example 4.56.

Evaluate log8 5 correct to 6 decimal places.

Solution
log10 5 0.698970
log8 5 = = = 0.773976.
log10 8 0.903089
Example 4.57.

Use a calculator to find log5 7.

Solution
ln 7 1.945910
log5 7 = = = 1.209061.
ln 5 1.609438

Logarithmic Equations
We will now illustrate the method of solving logarithmic equations.

Example 4.58.

Solve the following equations.

1. log 5 + log x = 2

2. ln(2x + 3) = 0

3. log x + log(x − 3) = 1

Solution
100
1. log 5 + log x = 2 ⇒ log 5x = 2 ⇒ 5x = 102 = 100 giving x = = 20.
5
2. ln(2x + 3) = 0 ⇒ loge (2x + 3) = 0 ⇒ 2x + 3 = e0 = 1 ⇒ 2x = −2 giving
x = −1.

3. log x + log(x − 3) = 1 ⇒ log x(x − 3) = 1 ⇒ x2 − 3x = 10 ⇒ x2 − 3x − 10 = 0

giving x = 5 and x = −2.
Since logarithms are defined for positive numbers only, we ignore x = −2
and report the answer as x = 5.

80
Application of Exponential Functions

A number of quantities in real life are modelled, for a certain period of time, by
the equation
Q(t) = Q0 ekt (4.3)

where Q0 is the initial amount present at t = 0, t is the time given and k is a

non-zero constant. If k > 0, the values of Q(t) grow without bound with time
and the equation is called exponential growth equation. If k < 0 the values
of Q(t) will reduce towards zero and the equation is called exponential decay
equation.

Example 4.59.

The number of milligrams of a drug in a person’s system after t hours is given

by the function Q(t) = 20e−0.4t . When will the amount of the drug be 0.1 milligram
(or almost completely gone from the system)?
Solution
We need to let Q(t) = 0.1 and solve the equation 0.1 = 20e−0.4t .
Now

0.1 = 20e−0.4t
0.005 = e−0.4t
ln(0.005) = ln e−0.4t
ln(0.005) = −0.4t.

ln(0.005) −5.2983
Therefore t = = = 13.25.
−0.4 −0.4
After approximately 13 hours and 15 minutes, the amount of the drug will be
almost gone with only 0.1 milligrams remaining in the body.

Example 4.60.

The population of a city in 2010 was 153800. Assuming that the population
increases continuously at a rate of 5% per year, predict the population of the city
in the year 2050.
Solution
We apply Equation 4.3, with initial population Q0 = 153800, rate of growth
k = 5/100 = 0.05 and time t = 2050 − 2010 = 40 years. Thus in the year 2050 the

81
population of the city is expected to be

Q(40) = 153800e(0.05)40
= 153800e2
= 153800 × 7.3891
= 1136436.828
≈ 1136437.

Example 4.61.
An initial population of 720 endangered turtles triples each year. Find the
population after 12 years.
Solution
First year we have 720 turtles and in the second year we expect to have
720 × 3 = 2160 turtles.
So, when t = 1, 2160 = 720ek ⇒ ek = 3 giving k = ln 3 = 1.0986.
Therefore the population model is

Q(t) = 720e1.0986t .

Population after 12 years will be;

Q(12) = 720e1.0986×12
= 720 × e13.1832
= 720 × 531362.6374
= 382581098.928
≈ 382581099.

Notice, in examples above, that the final answer is rounded to the nearest whole
number.

Activity 4.62.
1
1. If ax = cbx , show that x = a.
logc
b
2. Solve the following equations;
10
(a) =2
1 + e−x

82
 1
(b) 92x+1 =
274+x
(c) 25−2x = 125x+7
 −3x−2
1
(d) = 36x+1
6
(e) 3x+1 = 4x−1
(f) log2 3 + log2 x = log2 5 + log2 (x − 2)
(g) ln x + ln(x − 1) = ln(4x)
(h) log(3x − 10) = 2 + log(x − 2)

3. Show that logx y × logy z × logz x = 1.

b
4. If a3−x b5x = ax+5 b3x , prove that x log = log a.
a
5. Find the values of the following logarithms;

(a) log2 16
√
(b) log3 9 3 3
(c) log8 128
(d) log7 12
(e) log9 6

6. Express each of the following as a single logarithm;

(a) log(x + 1) − 3 log(1 − x) + 2 log x

1 1 2
(b) log(2x − 1) + log(x + 3) − log(x + 1)
3 9 9
√
 
1 x+1
(c) log x2 − 1 + log
2 x−1
7. Approximate the value of x if 56 = 14(1 + e0.195x ).

8. The population of area 9 starts off at 20, 000, and grows by 13 % each year.
Write an exponential growth model and find the population after 10 years.

9. A biologist is researching a newly-discovered species of bacteria. At time t =

0 hours, he puts 100 bacteria into what he has determined to be a favourable
growth medium. 6 hours later, he measures 450 bacteria. Assuming expo-
nential growth, what is the growth constant k for the bacteria? (Round k to
2 decimal places).

83
 10. A certain type of bacteria, given a favourable growth medium, doubles in
population every 6.5 hours. Given that there were approximately 100 bac-
teria to start with, how many bacteria will there be in a day and a half?

11. If a person takes A milligrams of a drug at time 0, then y = A(0.7)t gives

the concentration left in the bloodstream after t hours. If the initial dose
is 125 milligrams, what is the concentration of the drug in the bloodstream
after 3 hours?

12. The population of bacteria in a culture is growing exponentially. At 12:00

there were 80 bacteria present and by 4:00 PM there were 500 bacteria. Find
an exponential function f (t) = aekt that models this growth, and use it to
predict the size of the population at 8:00 PM.

Unit Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt the two main types of functions: algebraic and
transcendental. You ave also learnt how to identify a one-to-one, an onto, a bijec-
tive, an even and an odd function.
Laws of exponents and laws of logarithms were discussed. Yu also learnt how
to solve both exponential and logarithmic equations.

Activity 4.63 (Unit Test).

1. For each function f (x) below, find f −1 (x).

2x + 5
(a)
3x − 2
7x − 9
(b)
2
2x + 7
(c)
3x − 17
2. Given that f (2) = 3, g(3) = 2, f (3) = 4 and g(2) = 5 find g(g(3)) and
f (g(3)).

3. Functions f and g are given as sets of ordered pairs (x, y): f = {(−1, 1), (0, 3), (4, 5)}
and g = {(1, 6), (3, 7), (5, 8)}. Find the composite function defined by g ◦ f .

4. Find h(g(x)) and g(h(x)) given that h(x) = x + 4 and g(x) = x2 + 2x.

5. Solve the following equations.

84
  x+2
1
(a) 92x = 27 (3x )−2
3
(b) 2−100x = (0.5)x−4

6. Under certain conditions, the atmospheric pressure P (in inches) at altitude

h feet is given by P = 29e−0.000034h . What is the pressure at an altitude of
40000 feet?

7. For the two functions, f (x) and g(x), tables of values are shown below.

x −5 −2 1 3 x −2 1 2 3
.
f (x) 7 −5 3 2 g(x) 3 −1 −3 −5

Find

(a) f (−2) + g −1 (−5)

(b) f (1) − g(1) + f (g(3))
(c) g(f (1)) − f −1 (−5)
(d) g −1 (f (1)) + f −1 (g(3))

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.15

1. f (3) = 6, f (4) = 4

2. p(2) = 12 and p(−2) = 12

4. b. The domain is the set of all real numbers except −1 and 7.

c. The domain is the set of all real numbers.
e. The domain is the set of all real numbers except 5.

5. b = 6

7. x = 21

9 r = −1

10. t = 2

12. a = −2 when b = 3

85
 Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.29

1. (a) one-to-one (b) not one-to-one (c) one-to-one (d) one-to-one

−1 x−2 −1 x3 + 1
2. (a) f (x) = (c) f (x) =
3 5
3. 11

Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.37

1. (a) x2 − x − 7, (b) 23 (d) −16

3. (a) p(q(x)) = {(5, 9), (2, 6), (4, 5)} (b) p(q(x)) = {(6, 6), (7, 7), (0, 0)}

4. (a) f (g(−1)) = −4 and g(f (−1)) = −12 (c) f (g(−1) = −4) and g(f (−1)) =
−1

6. b = 4
5(x − 32)
7. f (g(x)) = + 273
9
Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.43

1. (a) even (b) odd (c) even (d) neither (e) neither (f) odd (g) neither

Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.62

190
2. (a) x = − ln 4 (b) x = −2 (e) x = 8.6371 (h) x =
97
7
5. (a) 4 (b) (d) 1.277
3
x2 (x + 1)
6. (a) log (c) log(x + 1)
(1 − x)3
8. 73386

9. k = 0.25

11. 125 × (0.7)3 = 42.875 ≈ 43

12. 3124

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

86
 2x + 5 2x + 9
1. (a) f −1 (x) = (b)f −1 (x) =
3x − 2 7
2. g(g(3)) = 5 and f (g(3)) = 3

4. h(g(x)) = x2 + 2x + 4 and g(h(x)) = x2 + 10x + 24

4
5. (a) x = 1 (b) x = −
99
6. ≈ 113

7. (a) −2 (b) 11 (c) −3 (d) −7

87
Unit 5

Graphs of Linear, Exponential

and Logarithmic Functions

5.1 Introduction
In Unit 4, we defined linear, exponential and logarithmic functions. In this unit,
we will look at their graphs. For linear graphs, we will discuss the slope, equation
of a straight line, parallel lines and perpendicular lines. For exponential and
logarithmic functions, we will look at how to sketch their graphs.

5.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Evaluate distance between two given points.

• Find the mid-point of the line segment joining any two points.

• Compute the gradient of the line using two given points.

• Find the equation of a line from two given points on the plane.

• Find the equation of line from one given point and the gradient.

• Discuss the condition for perpendicular and parallel lines.

• Draw graphs of linear, exponential and logarithmic functions.

88
 Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:
• Cartesian coordinate system

• gradient/slope

• linear graph

• exponential graph

• logarithmic graph

• distance between points

• slope-intercept form

• general form

• point-slope form

• two-point form

• horizontal line

• vertical line

• parallel lines

• perpendicular lines

5.3 Cartesian Coordinate System

In the Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system, a point O called the origin
is fixed. Then two lines which meet at O and are perpendicular to each other are
drawn. The lines are called axes. The horizontal line is the x-axis and the y-axis
is the vertical line.
The position of any point is described by finding the number of steps from
O in the direction of x-axis, called x-coordinate, and the number of steps from
O in the direction of y-axis, called y-coordinate (See Figure 5.1). This number

89
of steps from O is called the displacement. Moving up and moving to the right
from O are positive displacements while moving down and moving to the left give
negative displacements.

Figure 5.1: The Cartesian Coordinate System

5.3.1 The Distance Between Two Points

Let P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) be any points in a Cartesian plane (See Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2: Distance between P1 and P2

In the Figure 5.2, the distance

P1 R = x 2 − x 1

and distance
P2 R = y2 − y1 .

90
Since triangle P1 P2 R is right-angled, by Pythagoras theorem, we have;

(P1 P2 )2 = (P1 R)2 + (P2 R)2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

Therefore p
P1 P 2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
Hence the distance between any two points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) is given by
p
D= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . (5.1)

Remark 5.1. Do not worry about which point you choose for P1 (x1 , y1 ) (it can be
the first or second point given), because the answer works out the same.

Example 5.2.

1. Find the distance between points (−1, 2) and (5, −6).

2. The distance M N is 5, where M is the point (4, −2) and N is the point
(a, 2a). Find the possible values of a.

Solution

p √ √
1. D = (5 − (−1))2 + (−6 − 2) = 62 + 82 = 100 = 10.

2. By the distance formula,

p p
5 = (a − 4)2 + (2a − (−2))2 = (a − 4)2 + (2a + 2)2

so
√
a2 − 8a + 16 + 4a2 + 8a + 4 = 5
a2 − 8a + 16 + 4a2 + 8a + 4 = 25
5a2 + 20 = 25
5a2 = 5
a2 = 1
a = ±1.

Hence a = 1 or a = −1.

91
 Figure 5.3: The mid-point of a line

5.3.2 The Mid-point of a Line Segment Joining Two Points

Let M be the mid-point of the straight line joining points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 )
1 1
(See Figure 5.3). Then from P1 to M we move (x2 −x1 ) horizontally and (y2 −y1 )
2 2
vertically.
The x-coordinate of M is
1 1
x1 + (x2 − x1 ) = (x1 + x2 ).
2 2
Similarly, y-coordinate of M is
1
(y1 + y2 ).
2
Hence the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining (x1 , y1 ) to
(x2 , y2 ) are  
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
, . (5.2)
2 2
Example 5.3.
1. Find the mid-point of the line segment joining (1, −2) and (3, 5).
2. M is the mid-point of the line segment joining P (2, 2) and Q. Find the
coordinates of Q if M has coordinates (3, 4).
Solution

1. The mid-point has coordinates

     
1 1 4 3 1
(1 + 3), (−2 + 5) = , = 2, 1 .
2 2 2 2 2

92
 2. Let coordinates of Q be (x, y). Then
 
x+2 y+2
(3, 4) = , .
2 2
Therefore
x+2
=3
2
giving x = 4 and
y+2
=4
2
giving y = 6.
Hence the point Q has coordinates (4, 6).

Activity 5.4.
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points:
(a) (0, 0) and (3, 4)
(b) (0, 4) and (5, 1)
(c) (−3, 1) and (−1, 6)
(d) (4, −2) and (3, 0)
(e) (3, −2) and (6, 1)
√
2. The distance between two points A(6, 2p) and B(p, −3) is 5 5. Find the
possible values of p.
3. The vertices of a triangle are P (1, 3), Q(−2, 0) and R(4, 0).
(a) Find the lengths of the sides of triangle P QR.
(b) Show that angle QP R = 90◦ .
(c) The point T is such that P QT R is a square. Find the coordinates of T .
4. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segments joining:
(a) (3, 2) and (7, 2)
(b) (1, −2) and (1, 3)
(c) (0, 3) and (6, 1)
(d) (−3, 3) and (−1, 6)
5. Show that the points (3, 4), (−3, 7) and (−6, 1) and (0, −2) form the vertices
of a square.

93
5.4 Graphs of Linear Functions
In unit 4, we defined a linear function as a function of the form f (x) = a1 x + a0
where a0 and a1 are real numbers. Note that if we change the letters, we can write
a linear function as y = mx + c. Graphs of linear functions are straight lines.

Example 5.5.

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 3 for x between −2 and 3.

Solution
The table of values is given in Table 5.1 and the graph is in Figure 5.4.

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −1 1 3 5 7 9
Table 5.1: Table of values for the graph of y = 2x + 3

Figure 5.4: The graph of y = 2x + 3

5.4.1 The Gradient of a Straight Line Joining Two Points

The gradient of a straight line is a measure of how steep the line is. It is also called
the slope of that line.
If a line slopes upwards from left to right, then its slope is positive. On the
other hand, a line has a negative slope if it slopes downwards from left to right.

94
 Figure 5.5: Positive and negative slopes

In Figure 5.5, the line A has a positive slope and the line B has a negative
slope.
Mathematically, the slope of a straight line joining two points (x1 , y1 ) and
(x2 , y2 ) is given by
y2 − y1
m= . (5.3)
x2 − x1

Example 5.6.

Find the slope of the line passing through (−2, 1) and (3, 6).
Solution
6−1 5
m= = = 1.
3 − (−2) 5

Example 5.7.

The slope of the line which passes through (10, −5) and (3, r) is −2. Find the
value of r.
Solution

r − (−5)
m= = −2
3 − 10
r+5
= −2
−7
r + 5 = 14.

Therefore r = 9.

95
5.4.2 Equation of a Straight Line
There are a number of ways of writing the equation of a straight line depending on
the information given. However, the equation can be transformed from one form
to another.

The Slope-Intercept Form

The slope-intercept form of the equation of a straight line is

y = mx + c (5.4)

where m is the slope and c is the y coordinate at the point where the line crosses the
b
y-axis called the y-intercept. When y = 0, x = − . Therefore, the x-intercept
m
b
of the line in Equation 5.4 is − (See Figure 5.6).
m

Figure 5.6: Slope-intercept Form

Example 5.8.

1. Write down the equation of the line with slope 2 and crosses the y-axis at
the point (0, −4).

2. Find the equation of the line passing through (2, 3) and (0, 7).

Solution

1. Here m = 2 and c = −4, so the equation of the line is

y = 2x − 4.

96
 7−3
2. Here m = = −2, so the equation is y = −2x + c.
0−2
We use the second point to find the value of c:

7 = −2(0) + c ⇒ c = 7,

so the equation is
y = −2x + 7.

The General Form

The general form of the equation of a straight line is

ax + by + c = 0 (5.5)

where a, b and c are real numbers. Rearranging Equation 5.5 gives

 a  c
y = − x+ − .
b b
a c
Therefore, the slope of a line with Equation 5.5 is − and its y-intercept is − .
b b
c c
In Equation 5.5, x = − when y = 0. Therefore, the x-intercept is − (See
a a
Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7: The general Form

Example 5.9.

Find the general form of the equation of a straight line which has a slope of
2
− and y-intercept 2.
3
Solution

97
The slope-intercept form of this equation is

2
y = − x + 2.
3
Multiplying by 3 and rearranging we have

2x + 3y − 6 = 0.

Point-Slope Form
A line with slope m and passes through the point (x1 , y1 ) has equation

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ). (5.6)

Expanding m(x − x1 ) in Equation 5.6 and rearranging gives

y = mx + (y1 − mx1 ).

Hence the y-intercept of a line, with slope m and passes through (x1 , y1 ), is
y1 − mx1 .

Example 5.10.

Find the equation of a straight line with slope −3 and passes through (−1, 5).
Solution
We use y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) with m = −3, x1 = −1 and y1 = 5.
So

y − 5 = −3(x − (−1))
y − 5 = −3(x + 1)
y − 5 = −3x − 3
y = −3x + 2.

Two-Point Form
A line which passes through points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) has equation
y − y1 y2 − y1
= . (5.7)
x − x1 x2 − x1

Example 5.11.

98
 Find, in general form, the equation of a straight line which passes through
(−1, 2) and (2, −3).
Solution
We use Equation 5.7 with x1 = −1, y1 = 2, x2 = 2 and y2 = −3.
y−2 −3 − 2
=
x − (−1) 2 − (−1)
y−2 −5
=
x+1 3
3y − 6 = −5x − 5.

Hence the equation, in general form, is 5x + 3y − 1 = 0.

Horizontal and Vertical Lines

1. Horizontal Line
A horizontal line is any line which is parallel to the x-axis and perpendicular
to the y-axis. The equation of a horizontal line is

y=a (5.8)

where a is some real number.

Let (x1 , a) and (x2 , a) be any points in this line. Then the slope of this line
is
a−a 0
m= = = 0.
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
Hence the slope of a horizontal line is 0.

2. Vertical Line
A vertical line is any line which is parallel to the y-axis and perpendicular
to the x-axis. The equation of a vertical line is

x=b (5.9)

where b is some real number.

Let (b, y1 ) and (b, y2 ) be any two points on this line. Then
y2 − y1 y2 − y1
m= = .
b−b 0
Since we do not divide by 0, the slope of a vertical line is undefined.

99
 Figure 5.8: Horizontal and Vertical lines

Example 5.12.

1. Find the equation of the line passing through (5, −2) that is perpendicular
to the y-axis.

2. Find the equation of the line passing through (5, −2) that is parallel to the
y-axis.

Solution
See Figure 5.8.

1. This is a horizontal line. At every point of this line, the y coordinate is −2.
Hence equation of this line is y = −2.

2. This is a vertical line and its equation is x = 5.

5.4.3 Parallel Lines

Parallel lines are two straight lines that are always the same distance apart and
never touch. In order for two lines to be parallel, they must be drawn in the same
Cartesian plane.
We have the following result.

100
Theorem 5.13. Let straight lines L1 and L2 be parallel with slopes m1 and m2
respectively. Then
m1 = m2 , (5.10)
i.e., two straight lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

Recall that the slope is not defined for vertical lines. Therefore, although any
two vertical lines are parallel, we can not say that they have the same slope, since
there is no slope for each line in the first place.

Example 5.14.

Find the equation of the straight line which is parallel to the line y = 4x − 1
and passes through the point (3, 2).
Solution
The slope of a line parallel to y = 4x − 1 is 4, so using

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

with x1 = 3 and y1 = 2 we have

y − 2 = 4(x − 3)
y − 2 = 4x − 12
y = 4x − 10.

5.4.4 Perpendicular Lines

A line is perpendicular to another if it meets or crosses it at right angles (90◦ )

Theorem 5.15. Let L1 and L2 be straight lines with slopes m1 and m2 respectively.
Then L1 and L2 are perpendicular if and only if

m1 × m2 = −1. (5.11)

We know that any vertical line is perpendicular to any horizontal line. However,
we can not give a relationship between their slopes since the slope is not defined
for vertical lines.

Example 5.16.

1. Find the slope of a line which is perpendicular to the line joining A(1, 3) and
B(4, 5).

101
 2. Write down the equation of a line which passes through (3, 1) and is perpen-
1
dicular to a line with slope − .
3
Solution

5−3 2
1. Slope of AB is = .
4−1 3
Let m be the slope of any line perpendicular to AB, then
2 3
× m = −1 ⇒ m = − .
3 2

2. Let the equation be y = mx + c. We need to find the values of m and c.

Now
1
− × m = −1 ⇒ m = 3.
3
We use the given point to find the value of c as follows;

1 = 3(3) + c ⇒ c = −8.

Therefore, the equation of this line is

y = 3x − 8.

Activity 5.17.

1. Find the lengths of the line segments joining:

(a) (−2, 7) and (3, −1)

(b) (−2, 0) and (6, −3)
(c) (−1.5, 0) and (3.5, 0)
(d) (2.5, 4) and (1, 6)

2. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of the line segments joining:

(a) (4, −2) and (3, 6)

(b) (−3, −2) and (−6, 1)
(c) (−1.5, 6) and (3.5, 0)
(d) (−3.5, 2) and (4, −1)

102
 3. Find the slope of the line joining (2, 4) and (5, 9).
4. Find the equation of the line passing through the points (2, 3) and (−3, 7).
1
5. Find the equation of the straight line with slope − which passes through
3
the point (1, −2).
6. Given that A = (−2, 0), B = (0, 1), C = (3, 4) and D = (5, 0), show that
AB is parallel to CD.
7. The line joining the points A(1, 3) and B(3, −2) crosses the x-axis at the
point F . Write down the coordinates of F .
8. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the origin and is
1
perpendicular to the line y = x + 6.
2
9. Find the Cartesian equation for the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
A(2, 1) and B(4, 5).
10. Find the y-intercept of the straight line which passes through the point (2, 2)
and is perpendicular to the line 3y = 2x + 1.
11. Show that the point (−4, 8) lies on the line passing through the points (1, 3)
and (7, −3).

5.5 Graphs of Exponential Functions

In unit 4, we defined an exponential function as a function of the form f (x) = ax
where a is a positive real number (a 6= 1) and x is any real number. We will now
discuss the graph of this function.

5.5.1 Properties of Graphs of Exponential Functions

1. The y-intercept is 1, i.e., the graph crosses the y-axis at 1.
2. There are no x-intercepts, that is, the graph does not cross the x-axis.
The graph of an exponential function always lies entirely above the x-axis.
The graph gets close to x-axis, but never touches it. We say that the x-axis
is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of exponential function.
3. y = ax where a > 1 is an increasing function and is one-to-one (See Figure
5.9). y = ax , 0 < a < 1, is a decreasing function and is one-to-one (See
Figure 5.10).

103
 Figure 5.9: The graph of y = ax where a > 1

Figure 5.10: The graph of y = ax where 0 < a < 1

104
 4. The graph of an exponential function passes through the points (0, 1), (1, a)
1
and (−1, ).
a

5. The graph of an exponential function is smooth and continuous with no

corners or gaps.

Example 5.18.

In the same Cartesian plane, sketch the graphs of y = (0.5)x , y = 2x and y = 5x .

Solution
The table of values is given in Table 5.2. The graph is in Figure 5.11.

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
y = (0.5)x 16 8 4 2 1
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1
y = 22 1 2 4 8 16
16 8 4 2
1 1 1 1
y = 5x 1 5 25 125 625
125 125 25 5
Table 5.2: Table of values for the graphs of y = (0.5)x , y = 2x and y = 5x

Figure 5.11: The graphs of y = (0.5)x , y = 2x and y = 5x

105
5.6 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions
In unit 4, we defined a logarithmic function as a function of the form f (x) = loga x
where a is a positive constant, a 6= 1, and x is any positive number. In this section,
we will look at graphs of logarithmic functions.

5.6.1 Properties of Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

1. The x-intercept is 1, i.e., the graph crosses the x-axis at 1.

2. There are no y-intercepts, that is, the graph does not cross the y-axis.
The graph of a logarithmic function gets close to y-axis, but never touches it.
We say that the y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph of logarithmic
function.

3. A logarithmic function is decreasing if 0 < a < 1 (see Figure 5.12) and is

increasing if a > 1 (see Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.12: The graph of y = loga x (0 < a < 1)

 
1
4. The graph of y = loga x passes through the points (1, 0), (a, 1) and , −1 .
a

5. The graph is smooth and continuous with no corners or gaps.

Example 5.19.

106
 Figure 5.13: The graph of y = loga x (a > 1)

In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graphs (a) f (x) = 2x and g(x) =
log2 x.
Solution

(a) Table 5.3 is the table of values. The graph is sketched in Figure 5.14

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1
y 1 2 4 8
4 2
Table 5.3: Table of values for the graph of y = 2x

(b) Since g(x) = log2 x is the inverse of f (x) = 2x , the graph of g is obtained by
plotting the points (f (x), x). The table of values is given in Table 5.4 and
the sketch is in Figure 5.14.

1 1
x 1 2 4 8
4 2
y −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Table 5.4: Table of values for the graph of y = log2 x

107
 Figure 5.14: The graphs of f (x) = 2x and g(x) = log2 x)

Activity 5.20.
 x  x
x x x 1 5
1. Sketch the graphs of y = 4 , y = 10 , y = 6 , y = and y = .
3 2
2. Sketch the graphs of y = log4 x, y = log6 x, y = log8 x and y = log12 x.

3. In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graphs of y = loge x, y = log3 x and
log2 x.

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt graphs of linear, exponential and logarithmic
functions. You have learnt different forms of equation of a straight line, the slope
of a straight line, parallel and perpendicular lines. You have also learnt how to
sketch graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions.

Activity 5.21 (Unit Test).

1. Find the slope and y-intercept for the line with equation:

(a) y = 4 + 3x
(b) 2y − 4x = 3
(c) y = 4

108
 (d) 0.5y = 8x + 4
(e) 8 − 5x + 4y = 0
(f) 4 − 3x = 2y

2. Show that the lines 4y − 3x − 18 = 0 and 3y + 4x − 1 = 0 are perpendicular.

3. Find the equation of a line which passes through (2, 2) and is parallel to the
line 5x − 2y − 4 = 0.

4. Verify that (2, 5) lies on the line with equation y = 3x − 1.

5. The lines CD and EF are perpendicular with points C(1, 2), D(3, −4),
E(−2, 5) and F (k, 4). Find the value of the constant k.

6. Two vertices of a rectangle ABCD are A(−2, 3) and B(4, 1). Find:

(a) the slope of DC

(b) the equation of BC.

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.4
√ √ √ √
1. (a) 5 (b) 34 (c) 29 (d) 5 (e) 3 2

2. p = 4 and p = −4.
√ √ √
3. (a) P Q = 18, P R = 18 and QR = 36 = 6
(b) The triangle satisfies Pythagoras theorem since
√ √ √
(P Q)2 + (P R)2 = ( 18)2 + ( 18)2 = ( 36) = 36 = (QR)2 .
 
1
4. (a) (5, 2) (b) 1, (c) (3, 2) (d) (−2, 4.5)
2
√
5. The distance between any adjacent vertices is 45. Hence the points form
the vertices of a square.

Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.17

√ √
1. (a) 89 (b) 73 (c) 5

2. (a) (3.5, 2) (b) (−4.5, −0.5) (c) (1, 3)

109
 5
3.
3
4. 4x + 5y − 23 = 0

7. 5x + 2y − 11 = 0

8. y = −2x

9. x + 2y − 9 = 0

Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.20

3. See Figure 5.15.

Figure 5.15: The graphs of y = log2 x, y = loge x and y = log3 x

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. (a) slope = 3, y-intercept = 4

3
(b) slope = 2, y-intercept =
2
(c) slope = 0, y-intercept = 4
(d) slope = 16, y-intercept = 8
5
(e) slope = , y-intercept = −2
4
3
(f) slope = − , y-intercept = 2
2
110
3. 5x − 2y − 6 = 0

5. k = −5
1
6. (a) − (b) y = 3x − 11
3

111
Bibliography

[1] H. Anton, New elementary Linear Algebra with applications, New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 2005.

[2] J. Stewart, L. Redlin, and S. Saatson, College Algebra (5th ed.) USA:
Brooks/Cole, 2009.

[3] M. Sullivan, Algebra and Trigonometry (8th ed.), USA:Pearson Prentice Hall,
2008.

[4] E. Swokowski, and J. Cole, Fundamentals of Algebra and Trigonometry (9th

Ed.), Brooks/Cole, 1979.

[5] J. F. Talbert and H. H. Heng, Additional Mathematics: Pure and Applied,

South Asia: Pearson Education, 1990.

112