CLIMATE CHANGE

• Climate change means a long-term shift in temperature and weather patterns that
may be natural such as through variations in the solar cycle or a result of
anthropogenic activities such as carbon emission.
• Since the 1800s i.e. rapid industrialization, human activities, primarily the
combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas have been the primary cause of
climate change.
• It refers to the broad range of changes that are happening on our planet such as
rising global warming, rise of sea levels, shrinking mountain glaciers, accelerating ice
melt in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic and shifts in flower/plat blooming times.

Key Findings related to Climate

• China is the largest emitter of carbon dioxide which comprises 30.60% of the CO2
emission worldwide. China is followed by USA and India.
• The Earth is now about 1.1°C warmer than it was in the 1800s. The commitment
made under Paris Agreement may not be met.
• By the end of the century, the temperature might rise by as much as 4.4°C if carbon
dioxide emissions continue on their current course.

• The levels of greenhouse gases rose to a new height in 2019. The amount of carbon
dioxide was 148% of preindustrial levels.
• While sea ice, the Greenland ice sheet, and glaciers have decreased over the same
time period and permafrost temperatures have climbed, the Arctic has warmed at
least twice as fast as the global average.
• Between 2020 and 2030, the world’s production of fossil fuels must drop by around
6% in order to maintain a 1.5°C trajectory.

FACTORS SOURCES
Natural factors  Change in the Sun’s intensity
 Volcanic eruptions
 Natural processes within the climate system such as changes in ocean current
circulation.
Anthropogenic  Emission of Carbon dioxide (CO2) due to burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
factors gas. (Industries/transport)
(produced by  Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions from buildings have increased over the
humans) past few years as a result of rising energy demand for heating and cooling, rising air
conditioner ownership, and increased electricity use for lighting, appliances, and
connected devices.
 A percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions is caused by deforestation,
along with agriculture and other changes in land use.
 Forests absorb carbon dioxide, hence cutting or destroying forests reduces nature’s
capacity to absorb emissions.
 Emission of Methane (CH4) and Nitrous oxide (N2O) from agriculture.
 Emissions through land use changes such as urbanization, desertification etc.
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Sea Level Rise
• According to NASA, the global sea level has risen since 1880.
• It is caused due to addition of water from melting land ice and the expansion of
seawater as it warms.
• Consequences:
 small island states like Maldives and Sunderbans region in India are threatened.
 Coastal areas will be flooded in places like the Netherlands, Bangladesh and
Indonesia etc necessitating the need for evacuation of large populations.
 It will increase climate refugees, those who will have to leave their native places
and migrate to other countries for shelter.

Melting of Glaciers, Ice and Permafrost

• Climate change has led to the melting of earth’s cryosphere[ the regions on Earth
where water freezes into snow or ice]
• Observed changes in the cryosphere are decline in Arctic sea ice extent and reduced
snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere.

Change in Precipitation Patterns

• Atmospheric water vapour is increasing because a warmer atmosphere can hold
more water.
• Climate change will have an impact on the predictability and variability in
precipitation patterns.

Atmospheric Circulation Pattern

• Changes in climate can cause the jet stream to migrate south, bringing with it cold,
Arctic air.
• This is why some states have a sudden cold snap or colder than normal winter.
• Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the
atmosphere, typically occurring around 30,000 feet (9,100 meters) in elevation.

Agriculture, Food Security and Human Health

• Climate change will impact agriculture and food production around the world due to
the effects of elevated CO2 in the atmosphere, higher temperatures, altered
precipitation.
• Extreme floods and droughts are likely to have serious impacts on water resources,
agriculture and food security cause of loss of topsoil, erosion; land degradation and
desertification.

Disease Burden
• Diseases are likely to spread.
• Global warming will directly affect human health by increasing cases of heat-related
mortality, dehydration, spread of infectious diseases, malnutrition and damage to
public health infrastructure.

Effect on the Oceans

 • Global warming can affect sea levels, coastlines, ocean acidification, ocean currents,
seawater, sea surface temperatures, tides the sea floor, weather, and trigger several
changes in ocean biogeochemistry.

Ocean Acidification
• About one-third of the carbon dioxide emitted by human activity has already been
taken up by the oceans.
• As carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, carbonic acid is formed, which has the effect
of acidifying the ocean, measured as a change in pH, potentially highly detrimental
effects for a substantial number of species.
• Oxygen Depletion
 From 1961 to 2003, global ocean temperature has risen by 0.10 oC
 The warming has affected the amount of oxygen dissolved in the oceans, which
will decline, with adverse consequences for ocean life.

Effect of Fishers
• Sea level rise will lower fish production and damage the livelihood of communities
dependent on fisheries.
• Some tropical fish stocks may face regional extinction, including shellfish.
• Some others may move towards higher altitudes.

Biodiversity Loss
• Climate change has been estimated to be a major driver of biodiversity loss in cool
coniferous forests, savannas, Mediterranean-climate systems, tropical forests, in the
Arctic tundra, and in coral reefs.
• Impact on Wild Species:
 The warming of the ocean will cause changes in the species migration or areas
that they inhabit.
 Many terrestrial, freshwater and marine species have shifted their geographic
ranges, seasonal activities, migration patterns, abundance and species
interactions in response to climate change.
 Warming will increase photosynthetic activity leading to faster growth of plants
and trees. Initially, yields will be more, but too much heat will kill the crops.

Coral Bleaching
• Coral bleaching is when unicellular organisms that help make up the coral begin to
die off and leave the coral giving it a white appearance. These unicellular organisms
are important for the coral to feed and get the proper nutrition that is necessary to
survive.
• This effect can be seen on the Great Barrier Reef in Australia.

Tropical Cyclones
• More Severe Storms
• In many areas, destructive storms have increased in intensity and frequency.
• More moisture evaporates as temperatures rise, aggravating extremely heavy rains
and flooding and resulting in more severe storms.
 • Warm ocean surface waters are the primary source of cyclones, hurricanes, and
typhoons.
• Cyclones are known differently around the world. For e.g. they are known as
cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean, Typhoon in Western
Pacific and the South China Sea and Willy-willy in the Western Australia.
• Cyclones that hit the Indian States (2020-2022)
 Cyclone Jawad Odisha & Andhra Pradesh
 Cyclone Gulaab AP & Odisha
 Cyclone Tauktae Gujarat, Maharashtra & Karnataka
 Cyclone Yaas West Bengal & Odisha
 Cyclone Nisarga Maharashtra
 Cyclone Amphan Odisha & West Bengal
 Cyclone Kyarr Western India, & Somalia
 Cyclone Maha Gujarat
 Cyclone Vayu Gujarat, Maldives, Pakistan & Oman
 Cyclone Fani Odisha, West Bengal, AP
 Cyclone Bulbul West Bengal
 Cyclone Asani Odisha, AP
 Cyclone SItrang Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram

Migration and Conflict

• Millions might be displaced by shoreline erosion, river and coastal flooding and
severe drought.
• Migration related to climate change is likely to be predominantly from rural areas in
developing countries to towns and cities thereby leading to an increase in the
competition for resources.
• Environmental degradation, loss of access to resources and resulting human
migration could become a source of political and even military conflict.

GLOBAL WARMING:
• “Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to
the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and
other pollutants.”

Greenhouse Gases
• Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere.
• Water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and
ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere.
• Role of Greenhouse Gases:
 Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb a significant portion of the infrared
radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, preventing it from escaping the Earth's
system.
 Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of the Earth's surface
would be around -18°C rather than the current average of 15°C a temperature
suitable for living things to survive.
  However, any rise in such gases would result in more heat-trapping, increasing
the earth's temperature, as represented in global warming.

• Human Role:
 The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has risen significantly
over the last two centuries, owing primarily to human-caused carbon dioxide
emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation.
 This increase has exacerbated the natural greenhouse effect by trapping more of
the Earth's energy.
 The Earth's surface temperature rises as a result of this change.

CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING

Gas Sources Causes
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial process
Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigeration, solvents, insulation foams, aero propellants, industrial &
(CFCs) commercial uses
Methane (CH4) Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites, burning of fossil
fuel, wood, landfills, wetlands, fertilizer factories.
Nitrogen oxides (N2O) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop residue.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Iron ore smelting, burning of fossil fuels, burning e-waste.
Fertilizers produced hazardous gases
Landfills emit carbon dioxide and methane. Ex: disposal of waste in the ground

Natural Causes:
• Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and
smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects
the climate.
• Water Vapour
Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s
temperature, more water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the
atmosphere adding to global warming.
• Melting Permafrost
Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years
and is present below Earth’s surface. It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost
melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere, increasing Earth’s
temperature.
 • Forest Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These
gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature
resulting in global warming.
• Black Carbon or Soot
Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol (though not a gas) that contributes to
warming of the atmosphere.
Soot is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete combustion.
Black carbon warms the earth by absorbing heat in the atmosphere .and by reducing
albedo (the ability to reflect sunlight) .
Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
• Brown Carbon
Brown carbon is a unidentified component of organic aerosol.
Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is a major source of brown
carbon

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Global Warming: This is the gradual rise in the average temperature of the Earth's
atmosphere. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an
increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on coastal regions.

Ozone Layer Depletion:

• The ozone layer protects the earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. It can be
found in the stratosphere's upper reaches.
– The depletion of the ozone layer allows harmful UV rays to enter the earth's
surface, which can cause skin cancer and drastically alter the climate.
– The accumulation of natural greenhouse gases such as chlorofluorocarbons,
carbon dioxide, methane, and others is the primary cause of this phenomenon.
Melting of the ice caps:
• Melting of the ice caps and glaciers will lead to rise in sea level.
• Fertile agricultural lands on the coast will be submerged and saline water intrusions
will degrade the neighbouring land. Ground water in such regions will become
useless.
• Populous cities lying on the coasts will be submerged under the sea.
Smog and Air Pollution:
• Smog is created when smoke and fog combine. It can be caused by both natural and
man-made factors.
– Smog is caused by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases, such as
nitrogen and sulphur oxides.
– Automobile and industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires, and
chemical reactions are the major contributors to smog formation.
Acidification of Water Bodies:
• As the total amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has increased, most of
the world's water bodies have become acidic.
– The greenhouse gases combine with rainwater to form acid rain. This causes
water bodies to become acidic.
 – Furthermore, rainwater carries contaminants with it and deposits them in
rivers, streams, and lakes, causing acidification.
Loss to Biodiversity:
• Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas will adversely affects marine food chain.
• Rising temperatures will further affect the physical, chemical and biological
properties of seas, fresh water lakes and rivers, with adverse impacts on many
individual fresh water species.
Extreme Climatic Events:
• Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions .likelihood of extreme
events such as heat wave, flooding, hurricanes, etc. will offset all the economic
advancements made.
• Changes in rainfall patterns (E.g. 2015 Chennai floods, 2018 Kerala floods) will
severely impact agriculture.
Spread of Diseases:
• Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led
to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.
High Mortality Rates
• Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average
death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases
that can hamper human life.
Loss of Natural Habitat
• A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and
animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and
many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global
warming on biodiversity.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone
• Ozone is a naturally occurring molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. [O3]
• Ozone is found in different levels of the earth’s atmosphere. About 90% of ozone in
the atmosphere is concentrated between 15 and 30 kilometres above the earth’s
surface (stratospheric ozone).
• It is also found at ground level in lower concentrations (tropospheric ozone).
• The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and
Henri Buisson.

Ozone layer
• The ozone layer is the common term for the high concentration of ozone that is
found in the stratosphere between 15 and 30km above the earth’s surface
• The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun’s medium-frequency ultraviolet
radiation which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the
surface.

Ozone Depletion
• Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous
bromine or chlorine from industries or other human activities.
How Ozone Depletion Occurs?
• When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the
stratosphere, they destroy ozone molecules.
• Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to intense UV
light in the stratosphere.
• These compounds contribute to ozone depletion, and are called ozone-depleting
substances (ODS)ODS that release chlorine include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform.
• ODS that release bromine include halons and methyl bromide.
• The ODS are emitted at the Earth’s surface, they are eventually carried into the
stratosphere in a process that can take as long as two to five years.

• These ozone-depleting chemicals are extensively used man-made chemicals :

 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs);
 halons;
 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform);
 carbon tetrachloride;
 methyl bromide;
 hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs);
 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs); and
 bromochloromethane (BCM)

• Also the natural processes, such as large volcanic eruptions, can have an indirect
effect on ozone levels, with the production of tiny particles called Aerosols.
• These aerosols increase chlorine’s effectiveness at destroying ozone.
• This severe depletion creates the so-called “ozone hole”.

EFFECTS
Effects on Human Health
• UV causes non-melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma
development. In addition, UV causes cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s lens. Difficulty
in breathing. Suppressed immune system. Can lead to DNA mutation.
Effects on Plants
• UV radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants.
• plant growth can be directly affected by UV radiation
• Mutations may occur.
Effects on Marine Ecosystems
• UV radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental stages of fish,
shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other marine animals. The most severe effects are
decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Small increases in
UV exposure could result in population reductions for small marine organisms with
implications for the whole marine food chain
 OZONE PROTECTION

ACID RAIN
• Acid rain is also known as acid deposition.
• It is a term used to describe the phenomenon where rainfall becomes acidic due to
elevated levels of hydrogen ions.
• Normally, water has a neutral pH level between 6.5 and 8.5, but acid rain has a lower
pH, typically ranging from 4 to 5.
• Emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide cause acid rain.
• They react with water molecules in the atmosphere to form acids.
• It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure.

CAUSES OF ACID RAIN

1. Natural Sources:
a) Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of sulphur
dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere. These gases can contribute to the
formation of acid rain when they combine with water vapor.
b) Forest fires: Forest fires produce smoke and ash that contain nitrogen oxides and
other pollutants. These pollutants can react with water in the atmosphere and
contribute to the formation of acid rain.

2. Human Activities
a) Emissions from power plants: Power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal
and oil, release significant amounts of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into
the air. These emissions are a major contributor to acid rain.
b) Industrial emissions: Industrial processes, such as manufacturing and chemical
production, release pollutants into the atmosphere. These pollutants can react
with water vapor and contribute to the formation of acid rain.
c) Vehicle emissions: Vehicles that run on gasoline or diesel produce nitrogen
oxides and sulphur dioxide as by-products of combustion. These emissions can
contribute to the formation of acid rain.
d) Agricultural practices: The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture can
release ammonia and other compounds that react with atmospheric pollutants
to form acids. Agricultural emissions can contribute to the formation of acid rain.
 EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
The effects of acid rain can be detrimental to the environment and human health.
1. Environmental Effects
a) Damage to forests and vegetation: Acid rain can damage trees and plants by
leaching essential nutrients from the soil, weakening their roots, and inhibiting
their growth. This can lead to the decline of forests and the loss of biodiversity.
b) Acidification of lakes, rivers, and streams: Acid rain can acidify bodies of water,
making them more acidic than normal. This can harm aquatic life, such as fish
and amphibians, and disrupt entire ecosystems.
c) Harm to aquatic life and ecosystems: Acid rain affects aquatic life by altering the
pH levels of water bodies. Acidic water can harm fish, insects, and other
organisms that rely on a specific pH range for survival. This disruption can have
cascading effects throughout the food chain.

2. Human Health Effects

a) Respiratory problems: Inhalation of pollutants released by acid rain, such as
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, can cause or exacerbate respiratory issues,
particularly in individuals with pre-existing conditions like asthma.
b) Skin irritation: Contact with acid rain can cause skin irritation and other
dermatological problems, especially for individuals with sensitive skin.
c) Increased risk of certain diseases: Long-term exposure to acid rain and its
pollutants has been linked to an increased risk of respiratory diseases,
cardiovascular problems, and even certain cancers.

DAMAGE TO INFRASTRUCTURE
• Corrosion of buildings and statues:
Acid rain can corrode buildings, statues, and other structures made of stone, metal,
or concrete. This corrosion weakens the structures over time, leading to costly
repairs or irreversible damage.
• Deterioration of metals and paints:
Acid rain can accelerate the deterioration of metals and paints, leading to rusting,
discoloration, and a shortened lifespan of infrastructure and vehicles.
• Damage to cultural heritage sites:
Many cultural heritage sites, such as historic buildings and monuments, are
vulnerable to acid rain. The erosion caused by acid rain can result in the loss of
invaluable historical and cultural artefacts.
 MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Meaning of Mitigation:
• Climate change mitigation means avoiding and reducing emissions of heat-trapping
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to prevent the planet from warming to more
extreme temperatures.
• Climate change adaptation means altering our behaviour, systems, and—in some
cases—ways of life to protect our families, our economies, and the environment in
which we live from the impacts of climate change.

• Alongside adaptation, mitigation constitutes one of the key responses to climate

change.
• Virtually all nations have ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992).
• The primary objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize GHG concentrations in the
atmosphere at a threshold that averts perilous human interference with the climate
system.

STRATEGIES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE:

Carbon Sequestration:
• Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon
dioxide. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere with the goal of reducing global climate change.
• These technologies involve capturing CO2 emissions from power plants, industrial
facilities, or even directly from the atmosphere, and securely storing it underground
for an indefinite period. The idea is to stabilize carbon in solid and dissolved forms so
that it doesn’t cause the atmosphere to warm.

• Types of carbon sequestration:

1. Terrestrial
Terrestrial carbon sequestration is the process through which CO2 from the
atmosphere is collected by trees and plants during photosynthesis and stored as
carbon in soils and biomass (tree trunks, branches, foliage, and roots)
2. Geologic
Carbon dioxide can be stored in a variety of locations, including oil and gas
deposits, non-mineable coal seams, saline formations, and shale formations with
significant organic content.
3. Ocean
It is a method to distribute CO2 evenly throughout the ocean depth and
minimize surface ocean impact .

Carbon Sink
• A carbon sink is a natural or human-made reservoir that gathers and retains carbon-
containing compounds for an extended period, thereby reducing CO2 levels in the
atmosphere.
• The two primary global carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean.
• Since the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes the utilization of
CO2 sinks as a form of carbon offset, there has been a heightened public awareness
of their significance.

• The term “blue carbon” pertains to carbon captured by marine ecosystems.

• The majority of marine plant life comprises mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses,
which store substantial amounts of carbon.
• Various endeavours are underway to enhance natural carbon sequestration in soils
and oceans.

• Green carbon is carbon that is removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants
and soil of natural ecosystems, and it is an important component of the global
carbon cycle.
• Many plants and most crops have short lives and release a significant amount of
carbon at the end of each season, whereas forest biomass accumulates carbon over
decades and centuries.
• Furthermore, forests can store a significant amount of CO2 in relatively short periods
of time, typically several decades.
• Afforestation and reforestation are two strategies for increasing biological carbon
sequestration.

• Carbon Credit:
 A carbon credit is a permit that authorizes the holder to release a specific
quantity of CO2 or other greenhouse gases. Each credit permits the emission of
one metric ton of CO2 or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases.
 Entities with emissions allowances are permitted to emit up to a defined limit,
which is progressively reduced over time. Simultaneously, companies have the
option to sell any unused credits to other companies in need.

• Carbon Offsetting:
 A carbon offset broadly refers to a reduction in GHG emissions – or an increase
in carbon storage (e.g., through land restoration or the planting of trees) – that is
used to compensate for emissions that occur elsewhere.
 A carbon offset credit is a transferrable instrument certified by governments or
independent certification bodies to represent an emission reduction of one
metric tonne of CO2, or an equivalent amount of other GHGs (see Text Box,
below).
 An Illustration
In the short term, Business A1 is unable to reduce 100 tonnes of CO2 emissions.
There is a project somewhere else in the world that could easily save 100 tonnes,
but it requires funding.
For example, a community in India could switch from carbon-intensive kerosene
to solar panels as an energy source, but they cannot afford the solar panels.
By purchasing carbon offsets, you provide financial assistance to subsidise the
cost of installing solar panels on housing, resulting in a saving of 100 tonnes of
CO2.
As a result, Business A1 has reduced global net CO2 emissions by 100 tonnes.
 • Carbon Tax:
 It is a form of Pollution Tax.
 It levies a fee on the production, distribution or use of fossil fuels based on how
much carbon their combustion emits.
 It is a cost-effective tool to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere.
 It is a kind of a Pigouvian tax ( tax on negative externalities). It is based on the
‘polluter pay’ principle.
 The ultimate goal of a carbon tax is to reduce and eventually eliminate the use of
fossil fuels.

INDIA - MEASURES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE

• Improving energy efficiency and conservation, as well as establishing a Bureau of
Energy Efficiency
• Reforms to the power sector
• Promoting hydro and renewable energy
• Promotion of clean coal technologies
• Coal washing and efficient utilisation of coal
• Forest reforestation and conservation
• Reduced gas flaring
• Cleaner, less carbon-intensive transportation fuel
• Encourage the use of Mass Rapid Transit systems
• Management of environmental quality and increased energy efficiency.

Global Initiatives to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
• Its purpose is to provide policymakers with periodic assessments of the scientific
foundation of climate change, including its impacts, future risks, and potential
strategies for adaptation and mitigation.

• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed in 1992 and
enacted in 1994, aims to achieve the “stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic intervention
with the climate system.”
• The Kyoto Protocol (KP), adopted at the 3rd COP in 1997, is an international
agreement designed to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by a minimum of 5%
compared to 1990 levels by 2012.
• This agreement targeted a range of greenhouse gases, including CO2, CH4, N2O,
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6),
for reduction..