Sampling

By: Aysheshim Belaineh (MPH)

Department of Public Health

College of Health Sciences
Debre Markos University
May, 2023
DMU, Ethiopia
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 Basic terms in sampling
• Information about a larger population is often
estimated by selecting and measuring a
sample from that population.
• Population: is the larger group from which
individuals are selected to participate in a
study.
• A sample is a collection of individuals
selected from a larger population. The actual
group in which the study is conducted.
• For example, we may have a single sample
composed of 50 individuals, representing a
population of 1000 people.
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 Terms cont.
• Sample size - the number of individuals
included in the sample.
• Sampling - the process of selecting a portion
of the population to represent the entire
population.
• Inference: Making generalizations about the
population based on the information from the
sample drawn from that population.

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 Terms cont.
• Reference or source or target population: the
population of interest to whom the researchers
would like to make generalizations.
• Study population: the subset of the target
population from which a sample will be drawn
• Sampling unit: the unit of selection in the
sampling process.
• Study unit: the units on which information
will be collected: e.g., persons, housing units
etc.

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 Terms cont.
If researchers are interested to know about factors
associated with ART use among HIV/AIDS patients
attending certain hospitals in a given Region.

Target population = All

HIV/AIDS patients in Amhara
region
Study population = All
HIV/AIDS patients in, e.g.,
3, hospitals in Amhara
region

Sample
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 Terms cont.

Target population: The

conclusion may or may
not be generalizable due
to refusals, selection
biases, etc.

Study population:
If sampling is representative,
then the conclusion applies to
the study population

Sample:
The conclusion is drawn
from the sample

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The main concern in sampling:

– Ensure that the sample represents the

population, and

– The findings can be generalized.

• Researchers often use sample survey

methodology to obtain information about a
larger population by selecting and measuring a
sample from that population.
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• Since population is too large, we rely on the
information collected from the sample.
• Inferences about the population are based on
the information from the sample drawn from
that population.
• However, due to the variability in the
characteristics of the population, scientific
sample designs should be applied to select a
representative sample.
• If not, there is a high risk of distorting the view
of the population.

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• Researchers are not interested in the sample
itself, but in what can be learned from the
sample and how this information can be
applied to the entire population.
• Therefore, it is essential that a sample should
be correctly defined and organized.
• If the wrong questions are posed to the wrong
people, reliable information will not be received
and lead to a wrong conclusion when applied
to the entire population.

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 Information
Sample

Population

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A health survey (sampling) is a planned study to
investigate the health characteristics of a certain
population.

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 A health survey is used to:
• Measure the total amount of illness in the
population;
• Measure the amount of illness caused by a
specified disease;
• Examine the utilization of existing health care
facilities and demand for new ones;
• Measure the distribution of a particular
characteristic, e.g., breast-feeding practice in
the population;
• Examine the role and relationship of one or
more factors in the etiology of a disease.
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 Do these before sampling
Establish the study's objectives
 The first step in planning a useful and efficient
survey is to specify the objectives with as
much detail as possible.
Define the target population
• Specifically, the target population can be
defined by the following characteristics:
 Nature of data required, geographic location,
reference period, and other characteristics,
such as socio-demographic characteristics

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 before sampling cont.
Determine sample size
Prepare sampling frame

– List of all members of the population

(optional).

– The elements must not overlap.

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 before sampling cont.

Decide on the data to be collected

 The data requirements of the survey must be

established.

 To ensure that the requirements are

operationally sound, the necessary data terms
and definitions also need to be determined.

 Plan for summary and analysis of the data

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 before sampling cont.

Decide on the methods on measurement

 Choose measuring instrument and method of

approach to the population.

 Data about a person’s state of health may be

obtained from statements that he/she makes or
from a medical examination.

 The survey may employ, for instance, a self-

administered questionnaire.
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 before sampling cont.

Develop data collection tool

Make pretest and

Edit the tool if necessary

Finally, organize the field work and take a

sample from that larger population.

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 Advantages of sampling
• Feasibility: Sampling may be the best feasible
method of collecting information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on
resource such as finance, personnel, and
materials.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to a
better quality of data
• Sampling error: Precise allowance can be made
for sampling error
• Time saving: Data can be collected and
summarized more quickly
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 Disadvantages of sampling
• There is always a sampling error.
• Sampling may create a feeling of discrimination
within the population.
• It may be inadvisable where every unit in the
population is legally required to have a record.
While selecting a SAMPLE, there are basic
questions:
 What is the group of people from which we
want to draw a sample?
 How many people do we need in our sample?
 How will these people be selected?

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 Sampling Methods

Two broad divisions:

A. Probability sampling methods

B. Non-probability sampling methods

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 A. Probability sampling

• Involves random selection of a sample

• Every sampling unit has a known and non-zero

probability of selection into the sample.

• Involves the selection of a sample from a

population, based on chance.

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 Prob. cont.
• Probability sampling is;
– More complex,
– More time-consuming and
– Usually more costly than non-probability
sampling
• However, because study samples are randomly
selected and their probability of inclusion can
be calculated,
– Reliable estimates can be produced and
– Inferences can be made about the population
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 Prob. cont.

• Probability sampling has certain basic features:

– A sampling frame exists or can be compiled

– All units of the population have an equal or at

least a known chance of being included in the
sample

– Generalization from sample to population is

possible

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 Prob. cont.

Most common probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic random sampling

3. Stratified random sampling

4. Cluster sampling

5. Multi-stage sampling

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 1. Simple random sampling (SRS)
• The required number of individuals are
selected at random from the sampling frame

• Sampling frame: a list or a database of all

individuals in the population
• Each member of a population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
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 Simple cont.
• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units
in the population
– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N,
where N is the size of the population
– Select the required number (n)
• The randomness of the sample is ensured by;
– Use of lottery methods
– Table of random numbers or
– Computer generated numbers
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 Simple cont.

Lottery method

• You could print off the list of N clients, tear

then into separate strips, put the strips in a hat,
mix them up real good, close your eyes and
pull out the first n.

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 Simple cont.
Computer generated numbers
• Many computer programs can generate a
series of random numbers. Here's a simple
procedure that's especially useful if you have
the names of the clients already on the
computer with a number assigned to them.
Let's assume an EXCEL spreadsheet. In one of
the cell’s of an EXCEL spreadsheet write the
function =ROUND(RAND()*9 + 1, 0). This
formula will create random integer numbers
between 1 and 10.
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 Simple cont.
Table of random numbers
It is a table of random numbers constructed by a
process that
1. In any position in the table, each of the
numbers 0 through 9 has a probability 1/10 of
occurring.
2. The occurrence of any number in one part of
the table is independent of the occurrence of any
number in any other part of the table.

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A table of random number

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 Prob. cont.

• SRS has certain limitations;

– Requires a sampling frame

– Difficult if the reference population is

dispersed

– Minority subgroups of interest may not be

selected

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 2. Systematic random sampling

• Sometimes called interval sampling

• Selection of individuals from the sampling

frame systematically and randomly

• Individuals are taken at regular intervals down

the list

• The starting point is chosen at random

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 Systematic cont.
• Important if the reference population is
arranged in some order:
– Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration lists
• Taking individuals at fixed intervals (every 𝐊 𝐭𝐡 )
based on the sampling fraction, e.g., if the
sample includes 20%, then every 𝟓𝐭𝐡

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 Systematic cont.
Steps in systematic random sampling
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N,
where N is the total population size.
2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by
dividing the number of units in the population
by the desired sample size.
3. Select a number between 1 and K at random.
This number is called the random start and
would be the first number included in your
sample.
4. Select every K th unit after that first number.
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 Systematic cont.
For example:

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Systematic cont.

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 3. Stratified sampling
• It is done when the population is known to
have heterogeneity with regard to some factors
and those factors are used for stratification.
• Using stratified sampling, the population is
divided into homogeneous, mutually exclusive
groups called strata, and
• A population can be stratified by any
variable that is available for all units prior to
sampling e.g., age, sex, residence, income, etc.

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 Stratified cont.
• A separate sample is taken independently from
each stratum.
• Any of the sampling methods mentioned in this
section (and others that exist) can be used to
sample within each stratum.
• Stratified sampling ensures an adequate
sample size for sub-groups in the population of
interest.
• When a population is stratified, each stratum
becomes an independent population and you
will need to decide the sample size for each
stratum. 38
 Stratified cont.

Two types of sample size allocation

I: Equal allocation:

– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum

Example:

Village A B C D Total

HHs 100 150 120 130 500

S. size ? ? ? ? 60
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 Stratified cont.
II: Proportionate Allocation
• Allocating sampling proportional to the total
population of each stratum using the formula
ni = n/N*Ni Where,
o n = total sample size to be selected
o N = total population
o Ni = total population in the ith stratum
o ni = sample size from in the ith stratum
Example:
Village A B C D Total
HHs 100 150 120 130 500
S. size ? ? ? ? 60 40
 4. Cluster sampling
• Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out SRS
– Population may be large and scattered
– Complete list of the study population
unavailable
– Travel costs can become expensive if it
involves a larger survey
• Is also called area sampling
• The clusters should be homogeneous.
• The population is divided into groups with
similar characteristics of interest
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 Cluster cont.
Steps:
• Divide the population into groups or clusters.
• A number of clusters are selected randomly to
represent the total population
• Then units within selected clusters are
included in the sample.
• No units from non-selected clusters are
included in the sample.
• This differs from stratified sampling, where
some units are selected from each group

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 Cluster cont.
Advantages
• A list of all the units in the reference population
is not required.
• If a list of all units in the population is not
available, a list of all clusters is either available
or easy to create.
• Cost reduction
Disadvantages
• Assumes that the characteristic to be
studied is uniformly distributed.

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 5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to cluster sampling but sampling done
at stages
• Appropriate when the population is large
and widely scattered
• Requires at least two stages
• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the
sampling unit in the first sampling stage.
• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the
sampling unit in the second sampling stage,
etc.

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 Multi-stage cont.

Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-
TSU
kebele

HH

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 Multi-stage cont.

Advantages

• No need to have a list of all units in the

population.

• Saves a great amount of time and effort

Disadvantages

• More information is needed in this type of

sampling, which may not be available

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Summary

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 B. Non-probability sampling
• In non-probability sampling, every item has an
unknown chance of being selected.
• There is an assumption that there is an even
distribution of a characteristic of interest within
the population.
• For probability sampling, random is a
feature of the selection process, rather than
an assumption about the structure of the
population.

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 Non-probability cont.

• In non-probability sampling, since elements are

chosen arbitrarily, there is no way to estimate
the probability of any one element being
included in the sample.

• Results susceptible to bias

• As a result, many researchers are reluctant to

use it.

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 Non-probability cont.

• Despite these drawbacks, non-probability

sampling methods can be useful

 When descriptive comments about the sample

itself are desired

 They are quick, inexpensive and convenient

 When it is unfeasible or impractical to

conduct probability sampling

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 Non-probability cont.

The most common types of non-probability

sampling:

1. Convenience sampling

2. Volunteer sampling

3. Judgment sampling

4. Quota sampling

5. Snowball sampling
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 1. Convenience sampling
• It is a method in which for convenience sake
the study units that happen to be available at
the time of data collection are selected.
• Is sometimes referred to as haphazard or
accidental sampling
• Sample units are selected if they can be
accessed easily and conveniently
• Is easy to use, but susceptible to bias.
• It can deliver accurate results when the
population is homogeneous.
• For example, a scientist could use this
method to determine whether a lake is polluted
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or not.
 2. Volunteer sampling

• Occurs when people volunteer to be

involved in the study

• In experiments or pharmaceutical trials (drug

testing), for example, it would be difficult and
unethical to use random selection

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 3. Judgment sampling
• A sample is taken based on certain judgments
• The underlying assumption is that the
investigator will select units that are
characteristic of the population
• Is sometimes referred to as purposive sampling
• Researchers often use this method in
exploratory studies like pre-testing of
questionnaires and focus groups.
• Disadvantage- It is subjected to the
researcher's biases and perhaps even more
biased than haphazard sampling.
• Advantage- Reduced cost and time.
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 4. Quota sampling
• The most common forms of non-probability
sampling.
• Sampling is done until a specific number of
units (quotas) for various sub-populations will
be selected.
• Study units from different categories (or strata)
of the population are selected.
• The basis of stratification can be: sex, age,
religion etc.
• The proportions of the subjects from each
stratum are determined.
• Combines judgment and convenience, and is
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more structured.
 5. Snowball sampling
• Relies on referrals from initial subjects to
identify and bring in additional subjects.
• Especially useful when desired sample
characteristic is rare, population is
inaccessible, or hard to find.
• Is sometimes referred to as referral sampling
• Not usually representative unless almost
everyone in the desired population is enrolled
Example: Study of STD among homeless people
Study of condom utilization among CSW

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 Errors in Sampling

• When we take a sample, our results will

not exactly equal with the results for the whole
population

• Two types of errors

– Sampling error (random error)

– Non-sampling error (bias)

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 Errors cont.
Sampling error (random error)
• The value of the characteristic measured in
a sample differs from that of the total
population
• This type of error, arising from the sampling
process, is called sampling error
• Can’t be avoided or totally eliminated
• Minimized by increasing the size of the sample
• When n = N, sampling error = 0

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 Errors cont.
Non-sampling error (bias)
• Systematic error in the design or conduct of a
sampling procedure.
• Results in distortion of the sample and study
results.
• More serious type of error
• Multi-factorial causes:
-Selection bias
-Non-response bias
-Errors in editing and tabulation of data etc.

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 Errors cont.

• Can be eliminated by careful design of the

sampling procedure and not by increasing the
sample size.

E.g., if you take male students of DMU only to

determine the proportion of smokers, result in
an overestimate, since females are less likely to
smoke. Increasing the number of male students
would not remove the bias.
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 I
Thank
You! 61