AP Statistics Chapter 1 Notes - Exploring Data
1.1/2: Categorical Variables and Displaying Distributions with Graphs
Individuals and Variables
Individuals are objects described by a set of data. Individuals may be people, but they
may also be animals or things.
A variable is any characteristic of an individual. A variable can take different values for
different individuals.
Categorical and Quantitative Variables
A categorical variable places an individual into one of several groups or categories.
A quantitative variable takes numerical values for which arithmetic operations such as
adding and averaging make sense.
Distribution
The distribution of a variable tells us what values the variable takes and how often it takes
these variables.
Describing the Overall Pattern of a Distribution – Remember your SOCS
To describe the overall pattern of a distribution, address all of the following:
Spread – give the lowest and highest value in the data set
Outliers – are there any values that stand out as unusual?
Center – what is the approximate average value of the data (only an estimation)
Shape – does the graph show symmetry, or is it skewed in one direction (see below)
Outliers
An outlier in any graph of data is an individual observation that falls outside the overall
pattern of the graph.
Describing the SHAPE of a distribution – Symmetric and Skewed Distributions
Symmetric Skewed Left Skewed Right
Mean = Median Mean < Median Mean > Median
Time Plot
A time plot of a variable plots each observation against the time at which it was
measured.
Always mark the time scale on the horizontal axis and the variable of interest on the
vertical axis. If there are not too many points, connecting the points by lines helps show
the pattern of changes over time.
AP Statistics – Chapter 1 Notes Page 1 of 3
1.3: Describing Distributions with Numbers
The Mean ( x )
To find the mean of a set of observations, add their values and divide by the number of
observations. If the n observations are x1, x2, …, xn, their mean is:
x x x xn n
x 1 2 3 or simply, x xi
n i 1
The Median (M)
The median M is the midpoint of distribution, the number such that half the observations
are smaller and the other half are larger. To find the median of distribution:
Arrange all observation in order of size, from smallest to largest.
If the number of observations n is odd, the median M is the center observation in the
ordered list. The position of the center observation can be found at (n + 1) / 2
If the number of observations n is even, the median M is the mean of the two center
observations in the ordered list. The position of the two middle values are n/2 and n/2 + 1
The Five-Number Summary
The five-number summary of a data set consists of the smallest observation, the first quartile,
the median, the third quartile, and the largest observation, written in order from smallest to
largest. In symbols, the five-number summary is:
Minimum – Q1 – M – Q3 – Maximum
The Quartiles (Q1 and Q3 )
To calculate the quartiles, arrange the observations in increasing order and locate the
median M in the ordered list of observations.
The 1st quartile (Q1) is middle number of the values that are less than the median.
The 3rd quartile (Q3) is the middle number of the values that are greater than the median.
Example
2 14 28 29 30 32 33 34 40 42 52
Min Q1 Med Q3 Max
The Interquartile Range (IQR)
The IQR is the distance between the first and third quartiles, IQR = Q3 - Q1
Outliers: The 1.5 x IQR Criterion
Call an observation an outlier if it falls more than 1.5 x IQR below the first quartile or above
the third quartile. Using the 5-number summary from above as an example (IQR = 40-28=12)
Low outlier cutoff: Q1 1.5 IQR (example: 28 – 1.5(12) = 28 – 18 = 10) Therefore,
the 2 is an outlier.
High outlier cutoff: Q3 1.5 IQR (example: 40 + 1.5(12) = 40 + 18 = 58) no outlier
AP Statistics – Chapter 1 Notes Page 2 of 3
1.3: Describing Distributions with Numbers
Boxplot
A boxplot is a graph of the five-number summary, with outliers plotted individually.
A central box spans the quartiles.
A line in the box marks the median.
Observations more than 1.5 x IQR outside the central box are plotted individually.
Lines extend from the box out to the smallest and largest observations, not the outliers.
Example:
The Standard Deviation (S or Sx)
The standard deviation of a set of observations is the average of the squares of the deviations
of the observations from their mean. The formula for the standard deviation of n observations
x1, x2, …, xn is:
s
( x x)
i
2
n 1
Calculation of the Standard Deviation
Consider the data below which has a mean of 4.8:
xi xi – mean (xi-mean)2
6 6 – 4.8 = 1.2 (1.2)2 = 1.44
3 3 – 4.8 = -1.8 (-1.8)2 = 3.24
8 8 – 4.8 = 3.2 (3.2)2 = 10.24
5 5 – 4.8 = 0.2 (0.2)2 = 0.04
2 2 – 4.8 = -2.8 (-2.8)2 = 7.84
Sum 0 22.8
So the standard deviation is 22.8 / (5 1) 22.8 / 4 5.7 2.387
AP Statistics – Chapter 1 Notes Page 3 of 3
AP Statistics Chapter 2 – Describing Location in a Distribution
2.1: Measures of Relative Standing and Density Curves
Density Curve
A density curve is a curve that
is always on or above the horizontal axis, and
has area exactly 1 underneath it.
A density curve describes the overall pattern of a distribution. The area under the curve and
above any range of values is the proportion of all observations that fall in the range.
Example
The density curve below left is a rectangle. The area underneath the curve is 4 0.25 1.
The figure on the right represents the proportion of data between 2 and 3 ( 1 0.25 0.25 ).
Median and Mean of a Density Curve
The median of a density curve is the equal-areas point, the point that divides the area
under the curve in half.
The mean of a density curve is the balance point, at which the curve would balance if
made of solid material.
The median and mean are the same for a symmetric density curve. They both lie at the
center of the curve. The mean of a skewed curve is pulled away from the median in the
direction of the long tail.
Normal Distributions
A normal distribution is a curve that is
mound-shaped and symmetric
based on a continuous variable
adheres to the 68-95-99.7 Rule
The 68-95-99.7 Rule
In the normal distribution with mean and standard deviation :
68% of the observations fall within 1 of the mean .
95% of the observations fall within 2 of the mean .
99.7% of the observations fall within 3 of the mean .
AP Statistics – Summary of Chapter 2 Page 1 of 2
2.2: Normal Distributions
Standardizing and z-Scores
If x is an observation from a distribution that has mean and standard deviation , the
standardized value of x is
x
z
A standardized value is often called a z-score.
Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution is the normal distribution N(0, 1) with mean 0 and
standard deviation 1.
If a variable x has any normal distribution N( , ) with mean and standard deviation ,
then the standardized variable
x
z
has the standard normal distribution (see diagram below).
The Standard Normal Table
Table A is a table of areas under the standard normal curve. The table entry for each value z is
the area under the curve to the left of z.
Standard Normal Calculations
Area to the left of z ( Z z ) Area to the right of z ( Z z) Area between z1 and z2
Area = Table Entry Area = 1 – Table Entry Area = difference between
Table Entries for z1 and z2
Inverse Normal Calculations
Working backwards from the area, we find z, then x. The value of z is found using Table A in
reverse. The value of x is found, from z, using the formula below
x z
AP Statistics – Summary of Chapter 2 Page 2 of 2