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AP Calculus BC Exam Prep Notes

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

164 views810 pages

AP Calculus BC Exam Prep Notes

what’s covered, what to memorize, and how to prep.

Uploaded by

samson

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

AP Exam Prep

AP Calculus (BC) Exam

Prep Course
Winter 2025, Course Notes

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Table of Contents
I. Welcome 1.6. Polynomials
1.6.1. Basic of Polynomials
Chapter 1. Review: Functions/Pre-
1.6.2. Example
Calculus 1.6.3. Practice
1.1. Interval Notation vs. Set Notation 1.6.4. Polynomial Graphs & Characteristics
1.1.1. Interval Notation 1.6.5. Example
1.1.2. Set Notation 1.6.6. Practice
1.1.3. Example 1.7. Factoring
1.1.4. Practice 1.7.1. Factoring
1.1.5. Practice 1.7.2. Factoring a Difference & Sum of Cubes
1.1.6. Cheatsheet
1.7.3. Example
1.2. Domain & Range 1.7.4. Practice
1.2.1. Domain 1.7.5. Practice
1.2.2. Range 1.7.6. Practice
1.2.3. Example
1.8. Dividing Polynomials
1.2.4. Practice 1.8.1. Dividing Polynomials - Long Division
1.2.5. Practice 1.8.2. Example
1.3. Operations with Functions 1.8.3. Dividing Polynomials - Synthetic Division
1.3.1. Operations with Functions 1.8.4. Example
1.3.2. Example 1.8.5. Practice
1.3.3. Practice 1.8.6. Practice
1.3.4. Practice
1.9. Rational Functions
1.4. Even and Odd Functions 1.9.1. Rational Functions
1.4.1. Even and Odd Functions 1.9.2. Solving Rational Equations
1.4.2. Example 1.9.3. Example
1.5. Transformations of Functions 1.9.4. Example
1.5.1. Transformation of Graphs 1.9.5. Practice
1.5.2. Example 1.9.6. Practice
1.5.3. Practice 1.10. Radical Functions

1.10.1. Radical Functions 1.17.2. Example

1.10.2. Solving Radical Equations 1.17.3. Practice
1.10.3. Example 1.17.4. Practice
1.10.4. Practice
Chapter 2. Limits & Continuity
1.11. Piecewise Functions
(Exam Weighting: 4-7%)
1.11.1. Piecewise Functions
2.I. AP Calculus Unit 1 Summary
1.11.2. Example
1.11.3. Practice 2.1. Basics
2.1.1. Limit Basics
1.12. Absolute Value Functions
2.1.2. Example
1.12.1. Absolute Value Function
2.2. Limit Laws
1.12.2. Example
2.2.1. Limit Laws
1.13. Inverse Functions
2.2.2. Practice
1.13.1. Inverse Functions
1.13.2. Example 2.3. One-Sided Limits

1.13.3. Practice 2.3.1. One-Sided Limits

2.3.2. Example: One-Sided Limit
1.14. Exponential Functions
2.3.3. Practice: One-Sided Limits
1.14.1. Exponential Functions
2.4. Infinite Limits
1.14.2. Example
2.4.1. Infinite Limits
1.14.3. Example
2.4.2. Example
1.15. Logarithmic Functions
2.4.3. Example
1.15.1. Logarithmic Functions
1.15.2. Example 2.5. Limits at Infinity

1.15.3. Example: 2.5.1. Limits at Infinity

1.15.4. Practice 2.5.2. Example

2.5.3. Example
1.16. Trigonometric Functions
2.5.4. Example
1.16.1. Trigonometric Functions
2.5.5. Practice
1.16.2. Example
2.5.6. Practice
1.16.3. Trig Identities
2.6. Indeterminate Forms
1.16.4. Practice
1.16.5. Practice 2.6.1. Indeterminate Forms

1.17. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 2.7. Computing Limits by Factoring

1.17.1. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 2.7.1. Computing Limits by Factoring

2.7.2. Example

2.7.3. Practice 2.14.5. Limits

2.8. Computing Limits by Multiplying by the 2.14.6. Limits
Conjugate 2.14.7. Limits
2.8.1. Computing Limits by Multiplying by the 2.14.8. Limits
Conjugate 2.14.9. Limits
2.8.2. Example 2.14.10. Limits: Indeterminate forms
2.8.3. Practice 2.14.11. Limits
2.9. Computing Limits by Getting a Common 2.14.12. IVT
Denominator 2.14.13. IVT
2.9.1. Computing Limits by Getting a Common 2.14.14. IVT
Denominator 2.14.15. Fundamental Trig Limit
2.9.2. Example 2.14.16. Fundamental Trig Limit
2.9.3. Practice 2.14.17. Squeeze Theorem
2.10. The Fundamental Trig Limit 2.14.18. Squeeze Theorem
2.10.1. The Fundamental Trig Limit 2.14.19. Squeeze Theorem
2.10.2. Example 2.14.20. Continuity
2.11. The Squeeze Theorem 2.Q. AP Calculus Unit 1 Exam-Like Questions
2.11.1. The Squeeze Theorem
Chapter 3. Differentiation 1: Basics
2.11.2. Example
& Fundamental Properties (Exam
2.11.3. Practice
Weighting: 4-7%)
2.12. Continuity
2.12.1. Continuity 3.I. AP Calculus Unit 2 Summary

2.12.2. Example 3.1. Average Rate of Change & the Secant Line
2.12.3. Practice 3.1.1. Average Rate of Change & the Secant
Line
2.13. The Intermediate Value Theorem
3.1.2. Example
2.13.1. The Intermediate Value Theorem
3.1.3. Practice Level 1
2.13.2. Example
3.1.4. Practice Level 2
2.13.3. Practice
3.1.5. Practice Level 3
2.14. Exam-Like Practice Questions
3.2. Instantaneous Rate of Change & the
2.14.1. One-sided Limits
Tangent Line
2.14.2. Limits
3.2.1. Instantaneous Rate of Change & the
2.14.3. Special Limits Tangent Line
2.14.4. Limits 3.2.2. Example

3.2.3. Practice Level 1 3.9.4. Practice

3.2.4. Practice Level 2 3.9.5. Practice
3.2.5. Practice Level 3 3.10. Derivatives of Exponential Functions
3.3. Derivatives as a Rate of Change 3.10.1. Derivatives of Exponential Functions
3.3.1. Derivatives as a Rate of Change 3.10.2. Example
3.3.2. Example 3.11. Exam-Like Practice Questions
3.3.3. Practice 3.11.1. Derivative by Definition
3.4. The Limit Definition of a Derivative 3.11.2. Basic Derivatives
3.4.1. The Limit Definition of a Derivative 3.11.3. Basic Derivatives
3.4.2. Example 3.11.4. Derivative by Definition
3.4.3. Practice 3.11.5. Chain Rule
3.4.4. When is Function Not Differentiable? 3.11.6. Chain Rule
3.5. Differentiation Laws 3.11.7. Quotient Rule
3.5.1. Differentiation Laws 3.11.8. Quotient Rule

3.6. The Power Rule (Derivative of 3.11.9. Power of a Function Rule

Polynomials) 3.11.10. Implicit Differentiation
3.6.1. The Power Rule 3.11.11. Implicit Differentiation
3.6.2. Example 3.11.12. Second Derivative
3.6.3. Practice 3.11.13. Logarithmic Differentiation

3.7. The Product Rule 3.11.14. Logarithmic Differentiation

3.7.1. The Product Rule 3.11.15. Inverse Trigonometric Derivatives

3.7.2. Example 3.11.16. Tangent Lines

3.7.3. Example 3.11.17. Tangent Lines

3.7.4. Practice 3.11.18. Horizontal Tangent Lines

3.11.19. Product Rule
3.8. The Quotient Rule
3.11.20. Product Rule
3.8.1. The Quotient Rule
3.11.21. Product Rule
3.8.2. Example
3.11.22. Normal Line
3.8.3. Practice
3.Q. AP Calculus Unit 2 Exam-Like Questions
3.9. Derivatives of Trig Functions
3.9.1. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions Chapter 4. Differentiation 2:
3.9.2. Example Composite, Implicit, & Inverse
3.9.3. Example Functions (Exam Weighting: 4-7%)

4.I. AP Calculus Unit 3 Summary 4.7. Higher Order Derivatives

4.1. The Chain Rule 4.7.1. Higher Order Derivatives
4.1.1. The Chain Rule 4.7.2. Example
4.1.2. Example 4.7.3. Practice
4.1.3. Example 4.7.4. Practice
4.1.4. Example 4.Q. AP Calculus Unit 3 Exam-Like Questions
4.1.5. Practice Chapter 5. Applications of
4.1.6. Practice
Differentiation: Contextual (Exam
4.2. Implicit Differentiation
Weighting: 6-9%)
4.2.1. Implicit Differentiation
5.I. AP Calculus Unit 4 Summary
4.2.2. Example
4.2.3. Example 5.1. Tangent Lines

4.2.4. Practice 5.1.1. Tangent Lines

5.1.2. Example
4.3. Derivatives of Inverse Functions
5.1.3. Practice
4.3.1. Derivatives of Inverse Functions
4.3.2. Example 5.2. Normal Lines

4.3.3. Practice 5.2.1. Normal Lines

5.2.2. Example
4.4. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
5.2.3. Practice
4.4.1. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
4.4.2. Example 5.3. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

4.4.3. Example 5.3.1. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

4.4.4. Practice 5.3.2. Example

4.4.5. Practice: Log and Ln 5.3.3. Practice

4.5. Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions 5.4. Related Rates

4.5.1. Inverse Trig Derivatives 5.4.1. Related Rates

4.5.2. Example 5.4.2. Example

4.5.3. Practice 5.4.3. Example

5.4.4. Practice
4.6. Bonus: Logarithmic Differentiation
(Important technique in calculus but not 5.4.5. Practice
usually covered in AP Calculus AB or BC) 5.4.6. Practice
4.6.1. Logarithmic Differentiation 5.5. Linearization (Linear Approximation)
4.6.2. Example 5.5.1. Linearization (Linear Approximation)
4.6.3. Practice 5.5.2. Example

5.5.3. Practice 5.8.22. MVT

5.5.4. Practice 5.8.23. MVT
5.6. L’Hopital’s Rule & Indeterminate Forms 5.8.24. MVT
5.6.1. L’Hopital’s Rule 5.8.25. MVT
5.6.2. Example 5.8.26. Intervals of Increase and Decrease
5.6.3. Practice 5.8.27. Intervals of Increase and Decrease

5.7. Solving General Indeterminate Forms 5.8.28. Critical Points

5.7.1. Solving General Indeterminate Forms 5.8.29. Critical Points

5.7.2. Example 5.8.30. Extrema

5.7.3. Practice 5.8.31. Extrema

5.7.4. Practice 5.8.32. Second Derivative Test

5.8.33. Curve Sketching
5.8. Exam-Like Practice Questions
5.8.34. Curve Sketching
5.8.1. Related Rates
5.8.35. Curve Sketching
5.8.2. Related Rates
5.8.36. Optimization
5.8.3. Related Rates
5.8.37. Optimization
5.8.4. Linear Approximation
5.8.38. Optimization
5.8.5. Linear Approximation
5.Q. AP Calculus Unit 4 Exam-Like Questions
5.8.6. Taylor Series from Definition
(Under Construction)
5.8.7. Taylor Polynomials
5.8.8. Maclaurin Polynomial Chapter 6. Applications of
5.8.9. Newton's Method Differentiation: Analytical (Exam
5.8.10. Newton's Method Weighting: 8-11%)
5.8.11. L'Hopital's Rule 6.I. AP Calculus Unit 5 Summary
5.8.12. L'Hopital's Rule
6.1. The Extreme Value Theorem
5.8.13. L'Hopital's Rule
6.1.1. Extreme Value Theorem
5.8.14. Limits
6.2. The Mean Value Theorem
5.8.15. L'Hopital's Rule
6.2.1. The Mean Value Theorem
5.8.16. L'Hopital's Rule
6.2.2. Example
5.8.17. Limits
6.2.3. Practice
5.8.18. Limits
5.8.19. Extreme Value Theorem 6.3. Intervals of Increase and Decrease

5.8.20. Rolle's Theorem 6.3.1. Intervals of Increase and Decrease

5.8.21. Rolle's Theorem 6.3.2. Example

6.3.3. Practice 6.Q. AP Calculus Unit 5 Exam-Like Questions

6.4. Critical Points and Extrema (Under Construction)

6.4.1. Critical Points and Extrema Chapter 7. Integration 1:

6.4.2. Example Antiderivative & Accumulation of
6.4.3. Practice
Change (Exam Weighting: 17-20%)
6.5. 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests
7.I. AP Calculus Unit 6 Summary
6.5.1. 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests
7.1. Finite Sums
6.5.2. Example
7.1.1. Finite Sums & Summation Notation
6.5.3. Example
7.1.2. Example
6.5.4. Practice
7.1.3. Practice
6.6. Maximum and Minimum on Closed
7.1.4. Practice
Intervals
6.6.1. Maximum and Minimum on Closed 7.2. Approximating Areas & Riemann Sums
Intervals 7.2.1. Approximating Areas & Riemann Sums
6.6.2. Example 7.2.2. Example
6.6.3. Practice 7.2.3. Practice
6.6.4. Practice 7.3. The Definite Integral
6.7. Concavity and Inflection Points 7.3.1. The Definite Integrals & Area Under a
6.7.1. Concavity and Inflection Points Curve

6.7.2. Example 7.3.2. Example

6.7.3. Practice 7.3.3. Practice

7.3.4. Practice
6.8. Curve Sketching
6.8.1. Curve Sketching 7.4. Properties of Definite Integrals

6.8.2. Example 7.4.1. Properties of the Definite Integral

6.8.3. Practice 7.4.2. Practice

6.8.4. Practice 7.4.3. Practice

6.9. Optimization 7.5. Computing Definite Integrals

Geometrically
6.9.1. Optimization
7.5.1. Computing Definite Integrals
6.9.2. Example
Geometrically
6.9.3. Example
7.5.2. Example
6.9.4. Practice
7.5.3. Practice
6.9.5. Practice
7.6. Antiderivatives & The Indefinite Integrals

7.6.1. Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) 7.12.1. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus - Part

7.6.2. Example I
7.6.3. Practice 7.12.2. Example
7.6.4. Practice 7.12.3. Example
7.6.5. Practice 7.12.4. Practice

7.7. Antiderivatives of Trig Functions 7.12.5. Practice

7.7.1. Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) of Trig 7.13. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus -
Functions Part 2
7.7.2. Example 7.13.1. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus - Part
7.7.3. Practice 2

7.7.4. Practice 7.13.2. Example

7.13.3. Example
7.8. Antiderivatives of Inverse Trig Functions
7.13.4. Practice
7.8.1. Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integrals) of
Inverse Trig Functions 7.13.5. Practice

7.8.2. Example 7.13.6. Practice

7.8.3. Practice 7.14. Integrating Even and Odd Functions

7.9. Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions 7.14.1. Integrating Even and Odd Functions

7.9.1. Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) of 7.14.2. Example

Exponential Functions 7.14.3. Practice
7.9.2. Example 7.15. Integration by Substitution (U-
7.9.3. Practice Substitution)
7.9.4. Practice 7.15.1. Integration by Substitution

7.10. Antiderivatives of x1
7.15.2. Example
7.15.3. Example
7.10.1. Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) of x1

7.15.4. Example (w/ Back-Substitution)

7.10.2. Example
7.15.5. Practice
7.10.3. Practice
7.15.6. Practice
7.11. Initial Conditions
7.15.7. Practice
7.11.1. Initial Conditions
7.15.8. Practice (w/ Back-Substitution)
7.11.2. Example
7.16. Exam-Like Practice Questions
7.11.3. Practice
7.16.1. Finite Sums
7.12. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus -
7.16.2. Integration by Substitution
Part 1
7.16.3. Integration by Substitution

7.16.4. Integration by Substitution 8.2. Trigonometric Integrals

7.16.5. Indefinite Integral with Trig and Inverse 8.2.1. Trigonometric Integrals
Trig 8.2.2. Example
7.16.6. Antiderivatives: Indefinite Integrals 8.2.3. Example: Trigonometric Integrals (Case 1-
7.16.7. Integration by Substitution 3)
7.16.8. Definite Integral with Trig 8.2.4. Example
7.16.9. Computing Integrals 8.2.5. Example
7.16.10. Finite Sums 8.2.6. Example
7.16.11. Finite Sums 8.2.7. Practice
7.16.12. Definite Integral 8.2.8. Practice
7.16.13. Integral from Definition 8.2.9. Practice
7.16.14. Definite Integral 8.2.10. Practice
7.16.15. Substitution with Definite Integral 8.3. Trigonometric Substitution
7.16.16. FTC I 8.3.1. Trigonometric Substitution
7.16.17. Integration 8.3.2. Example
7.16.18. Riemann Sums 8.3.3. Practice
7.16.19. Riemann Sums 8.3.4. Practice
7.16.20. Riemann Sums 8.4. Partial Fractions
7.16.21. Integral from Definition 8.4.1. Partial Fractions Decomposition
7.16.22. FTC I 8.4.2. Example:
7.16.23. FTC I 8.4.3. Example
7.Q. AP Calculus Unit 6 Exam-Like Questions 8.4.4. Example
(Under Construction)
8.4.5. Practice
Chapter 8. Integration 2: Integration 8.4.6. Practice
Techniques (Exam Weighting: 17- 8.5. Improper Integrals
20%) 8.5.1. Improper Integrals

8.1. Integration by Parts 8.5.2. Practice (type 1)

8.1.1. Integration by Parts 8.5.3. Practice (type 1)

8.1.2. Example 8.5.4. Practice (Type 2)

8.1.3. Example 8.6. Exam-Like Practice Questions

8.1.4. Example 8.6.1. Integration by Parts
8.1.5. Practice 8.6.2. Integration by Parts
8.1.6. Practice 8.6.3. Integration by Parts

8.6.4. Integration by Parts 10.2.1. Separable First Order Differential

8.6.5. Integration by Parts Equations
8.6.6. Trigonometric Integral 10.2.2. Practice (separable DE)
8.6.7. Trigonometric Integral 10.2.3. Practice (IVP)
8.6.8. Trigonometric Integral with IBP 10.2.4. Practice (IVP)
8.6.9. Trigonometric Substitution 10.2.5. Practice (IVP*)
8.6.10. Trigonometric Substitution 10.2.6. Practice (separable DE)
8.6.11. Trigonometric Substitution 10.3. Applications of DE
8.6.12. Partial Fraction Decomposition 10.3.1. Exponential Growth and Decay
8.6.13. Partial Fraction Decomposition 10.3.2. Example
8.6.14. Partial Fraction Decomposition 10.3.3. Example
8.6.15. The Trapezoid Rule 10.3.4. Practice
8.6.16. The Trapezoid Rule 10.3.5. Practice (population)
8.6.17. Simpson's Rule 10.3.6. Practice (population)

Chapter 9. Integration 3: Improper 10.4. Non-Linear DEs [Coming Soon!]

10.Q. AP Calculus Unit 7 Exam-Like Questions
Integrals (Exam Weighting: 17-20%)
(Under Construction)
9.1. Comparison Theorem for Improper
Integrals Chapter 11. Applications of
9.1.1. Comparison Theorem for Improper Integration (Exam Weighting: 6-9%)
Integrals 11.I. AP Calculus Unit 8 Summary
9.1.2. Practice (type 1 - converges)
11.1. Average Value of a Function
9.1.3. Practice (type 2 - converges)
11.1.1. Average Value of a Function
9.1.4. Practice (type 2 - diverges)
11.1.2. Example
9.Q. Improper Integral Quiz
11.1.3. Practice
Chapter 10. Differential Equations 11.2. Distance and Displacement
(Exam Weighting: 6-9%) 11.2.1. Distance and Displacement (Net Change
10.I. AP Calculus Unit 7 Summary Theorem)
11.2.2. Example
10.1. Basics of Differential Equations
11.2.3. Practice
10.1.1. Differential Equations
11.2.4. Practice
10.1.2. Direction Fields/Slope Fields
10.1.3. Practice Question: DE Solution Graphs 11.3. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
11.3.1. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
10.2. Separable Differential Equations

11.3.2. Example 11.8.10. Area Between Curves

11.3.3. Example 11.8.11. Volumes of Revolution, Cylindrical
11.3.4. Practice Shells

11.4. Area Between Curves 11.8.12. Volumes of Revolution, Disc/Washer

11.4.1. Area between curves 11.8.13. Volumes of Revolution, Cylindrical

Shells
11.4.2. Example
11.8.14. Volumes of Revolution
11.4.3. Example
11.8.15. Arc Length
11.4.4. Practice
11.8.16. Arc Length
11.5. Volumes (Cross Sections Method)
11.8.17. Arc Length with Partial Fractions
11.5.1. Volumes - Cross Sections Method
11.8.18. Arc Length with Perfect Square
11.5.2. Practice
11.8.19. Surface Area
11.5.3. Practice
11.8.20. Surface Area
11.6. Volumes of Revolution (Discs & Washers 11.Q. AP Calculus Unit 8 Exam-Like Questions
Method) (Under Construction)
11.6.1. Volumes of Revolution (Discs & Washers)
11.6.2. Example
Chapter 12. Parametric Equations,
11.6.3. Example Polar Coordinates, & Vector-Valued
11.6.4. Practice Functions (Exam Weighting: 11-
11.6.5. Practice 12%)
11.7. Arc Length 12.1. Parametric Equations
11.7.1. Arc Length 12.1.1. Parametric Curves
11.7.2. Example 12.1.2. Practice (Cartesian equations)
11.7.3. Practice 12.1.3. Practice (graphs)
11.8. Exam-Like Practice Problems 12.1.4. Practice (graphs)
11.8.1. Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 12.2. Calculus w/ Parametric Curves
11.8.2. Position, Velocity and Acceleration 12.2.1. Tangents/Derivatives of Parametric
11.8.3. Position, Velocity and Acceleration Curves
11.8.4. Average Value of a Function 12.2.2. Practice (derivatives)
11.8.5. Average Value of a Function 12.2.3. Practice (horizontal/vertical tangents)
11.8.6. Average Function Value of a Function 12.2.4. Practice (horizontal/vertical tangents*)
11.8.7. Area Between Curves 12.2.5. Arc Length, Area, and Surface Area
11.8.8. Area Between Curves 12.2.6. Practice (arc length)
11.8.9. Area Between Curves 12.2.7. Practice (area)

12.2.8. Practice (surface area) 13.2.2. Practice

12.2.9. Practice (surface area) 13.2.3. Practice
12.3. Polar Coordinates 13.2.4. Practice
12.3.1. Polar Coordinates 13.2.5. Practice
12.3.2. Graphing Polar Curves 13.3. Integral Test
12.3.3. Practice (graphs) 13.3.1. Integral Test
12.3.4. Practice (polar coordinates) 13.3.2. Practice: Integral Test
12.3.5. Practice (matching graphs) 13.3.3. Practice: Integral Test
12.4. Calculus w/ Polar Coordinates 13.4. Comparison Tests
12.4.1. Tangents/Derivatives of Polar Curves 13.4.1. Series and Limit Comparison Tests
12.4.2. Practice (derivative) 13.4.2. Practice (limit comparison test)
12.4.3. Practice (horizontal/vertical tangents) 13.4.3. Practice (limit comparison test)
12.4.4. Arc Length, Area Under & Between 13.4.4. Practice (telescoping series*)
Curves 13.4.5. Practice (series comparison test)
12.4.5. Practice (arc length) 13.4.6. Practice (series comparison test)
12.4.6. Practice (area inside curve) 13.4.7. Practice (telescoping series*)
12.4.7. Practice (area inside curve) 13.5. Absolute Convergence & Alternating
12.4.8. Practice (area between curves) Series Test
12.5. Conic Sections [Coming Soon!] 13.5.1. Absolute Convergence Test
12.Q. Parametric and polar curves Quiz 13.5.2. Practice
13.5.3. Alternating Series Test
Chapter 13. Infinite Sequences and
13.5.4. Practice: AST
Series (Exam Weighting: 17-18%)
13.6. Ratio Test
13.1. Basic Definitions
13.6.1. Ratio Test
13.1.1. Sequences
13.6.2. Practice
13.1.2. Series
13.6.3. Practice
13.1.3. Practice (Partial sums)
13.6.4. Practice (recursive series*)
13.1.4. Practice (Geometric series)
13.7. Root Test
13.1.5. Practice (Geometric series)
13.7.1. Root Test
13.1.6. Practice: Series Application
13.7.2. Practice
13.1.7. How to Test if a Series Converges?
13.7.3. Practice: Root Test
13.2. Test of Divergence
13.8. Which Convergence Test to Use?
13.2.1. Test of Divergence (nth Term Limit Test)

13.8.1. How to Pick Which Convergence Test to 14.2.4. Practice (w/ partial fractions)
Use? 14.2.5. Differentiation and Integration of Power
13.Q. Sequences and Series Quiz Series
14.2.6. Practice (differentiating power series)
Chapter 14. Power Series
14.2.7. Practice (integrating power series)
14.1. Power Series
14.2.8. Practice (integrating power series*)
14.1.1. Definitions of Power Series
14.3. Taylor and Maclaurin Series
14.1.2. Practice (radius of convergence)
14.3.1. Taylor and Maclaurin Series
14.1.3. Practice (radius & interval of
convergence) 14.3.2. Practice (Taylor series)
14.1.4. Practice: Radius & Interval of 14.3.3. Common Maclaurin Series (Memorize!)*
Convergence 14.3.4. Practice (Maclaurin series)
14.2. Functions and Power Series 14.3.5. Practice (Maclaurin series)
14.2.1. Representing Functions as Power Series 14.3.6. Practice (Maclaurin series of an integral)
14.2.2. Practice 14.3.7. Practice (evaluating a series*)
14.2.3. Practice 14.Q. Power Series Quiz

I. Welcome
I

Welcome to Wize's AP Calculus (BC) Course!

This Wize course covers the concepts you'll need to get a good score on your AP Calc (BC) exam.
You'll also find practice questions to help you master each concept.

You can go through each chapter in order, from beginning to end, or you can jump around and focus
on concepts you are struggling the most with.

📃 on the left to skip to parts you need help with

● Use the table of contents

● Watch the video ▶ or read the written lessons 📖

● Speed up ⏩ or slow down ⏪ the videos

● Use the "Ask a question"❓ feature below each lesson/question any time!

This resource includes the following activities:

●
Theory lessons: I will explain and summarize new concepts

●
Examples: I will walk you through how to solve problems involving these new concepts

●
Practice questions: These are for you to try out on your own. Don't worry, if you get stuck,
you can watch the video solutions or read the suggested written answers

Let's get started! 🚀

View this lesson online

[Link]
activity_id=79030&activity_type=CourseLesson

1. Review: Functions/Pre-
Calculus
1.1 Interval Notation vs. Set Notation

1.1.1

Interval Notation
Interval notation is a way of writing subsets of the real number line.

Closed Interval

● A closed interval is one that includes its endpoints

● We use square brackets [ ].

Example 1

[-5, 1] denotes the set of real numbers between -5 and 1 inclusively and can be shown on a number
line as follows:

Open Interval

● An open interval is one that excludes its endpoints

● We use parentheses ( ).

Example 2

(-5, 1) denotes the set of real numbers between -5 and 1 exclusively and can be shown on a number
line as follows:

WIZE TIP

A closed interval contains its endpoints → the endpoints are solid dots.

An open interval does not contain its endpoints → the endpoints are hollow dots.

Mixed Intervals

Mixed intervals contain both open and closed intervals.

Example 1

[3, 8) denotes the set of real numbers between 3 and 8 that are greater than or equal to 3 but strictly
less than 8. On a number line, it is shown as follows:

Infinite Intervals

Infinite intervals are intervals that tend towards infinity in one or both directions.

Example 2

[4, ∞) denotes the set of real numbers greater than or equal to 4 and can be shown on a number line
as follows:

Note: When working with positive & negative infinity, ±∞, parenthesis are always used next to
infinity.

Union of Sets

The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements in A, in B, or in both.

● The symbol used to indicate the union of two sets is ∪

● We use the union symbol to combine two or more intervals together

Example

The interval x < −5 or x ≥ 3 denotes the set of real numbers less than -5 and greater than or
equals to 3. On a number line, this it looks like:

In interval notation, we can express the above interval & number line as:

(−∞, −5) ∪ [3, ∞)

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:59)

[Link]
activity_id=70214&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.1.2

Set Notation

Set notation is a flexible (but slightly more complicated) way of writing down sets and it is an
alternative method to interval notation.

What is a set?

A set is a collection of well-defined objects and we encounter sets in math frequently.

Example

Let us look at the list of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. We can call our list of numbers a set and label it
whatever we like so let us call this set X. Therefore, the list of numbers in set X is:

X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Note: Sets and set notation are delimited by curly braces { }.

Common Sets

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...} → Natural Numbers

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...} → Whole Numbers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ...} → Integers

Q = {x∣ x = a
b,

b
= 0} → Rational Numbers

I = {x∣ x 
= ab , b 
= 0} →
Irrational Numbers

R=Q ∪ I → Real Numbers

Set Notation

We can also use set notation instead of interval notation.

Example 1

[-5, 1] denotes the set of real numbers between -5 and 1 inclusively and can be shown on a number
line as follows:

In set notation, our answer would be:

{x ∈ R∣ − 5 ≤ x ≤ 1}

Example 2

(-5, 1) denotes the set of real numbers between -5 and 1 exclusively and can be shown on a number
line as follows:

In set notation, our answer would be:

{x ∈ R∣ − 5 < x < 1}

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:16)

[Link]
activity_id=70215&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.1.3

Example: Interval Notation vs. Set Notation

Express the following inequalities in both interval notation and set notation:

1. −2 ≤ x ≤ 4

Solution available online

2. x < 4 or x ≥ 9

Solution available online

3. x > 3 and x ≤ 14

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:38)

[Link]
activity_id=70216&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.1.4

Match the interval with its appropriate notation.

A. {x ∈ R∣ x < 8}
B. {x ∈ R∣ − 6 < x < 3}
C. [−6, 3]
D. [10, ∞)
E. (−∞, 7]

x ≥ 10

−6 ≤ x ≤ 3

−6 < x < 3

x≤7

x<8

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105219&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.1.5

Convert the following set into set notation:

A = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0}

A) {x ∈ Z∣ − 4 ≤ x ≤ 0}

B){x ∈ R∣ − 4 ≤ x ≤ 0}

C){x ∈ Q∣ − 4 ≤ x ≤ 0}

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105220&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.1.6

Cheatsheet: Interval VS Set Notation

Type of Interval Description Interval Notation Set Notat

Open Interval Set of real numbers between a & b (a, b) {x ∈ R∣ a < x

but not including a & b themselves

Closed Interval Set of real numbers between a & b [a, b] {x ∈ R∣ a ≤

including a & b

1
2
-Open, 12 -Closed
Set of real numbers between a & b (a, b] {x ∈ R∣ a <
not including ’a’ but including ’b’

1
2
-Closed, 12 -Open
Set of real numbers between a & b [a, b) {x ∈ R∣ a ≤
including ’a’ but not including ’b’

Infinite Interval Set of real numbers greater than ’a’ (a, ∞) {x ∈ R∣ x >

Infinite Interval Set of real numbers greater than or [a, ∞) {x ∈ R∣ x ≥

equal to ’a’

Infinite Interval Set of real numbers less than ’a’ (−∞, a) {x ∈ R∣ x <

Infinite Interval Set of real numbers less than or (−∞, a] {x ∈ R∣ x ≤

equal to ’a’

Infinite Interval Set of all real numbers (−∞, ∞) {x ∈ R∣ x is a rea

View this lesson online

[Link]
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1.2 Domain & Range

1.2.1

Domain
The domain of a function refers to the complete set of possible values of the independent variable.
(i.e.: the domain is the set of all possible x-values which will make my function "work" and will out-put
real y-values).

Example 1

The function y = x2 is a quadratic function. Let's look at its graph:

Considering all the possible values of 'x' that allow us to get a real number in return, we are allowed to
take any real number 'x'.

Therefore, the domain of y = x2 is all real numbers.

● Interval Notation: (−∞, ∞)

● Set Notation: {x ∈ R∣ x is any real number}

Example 2

Consider the graph of the function below:

Considering all the possible values of 'x' that allow us to get a real number in return, we are allowed to
take any values of 'x' that are equal to or greater than 5.

Therefore, the domain of the function is x ≥5

● Interval Notation: [5, ∞)

● Set Notation: {x ∈ R∣ x ≥ 5}

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:58)

[Link]
activity_id=70221&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.2.2

Range
The range of a function refers to the complete set of possible resulting values of the dependent
variable. (i.e.: the range is the resulting y-values we get after substituting all possible x values into our
function).

Example 1

The function y = x2 is a quadratic function. Let's look at its graph:

If we consider the possible return values for some input value, 'x', then we can see that 'y' is greater
than or equal to 0.

Therefore, the range is y ≥0

● Interval Notation: [0, ∞)

● Set Notation: {y ∈ R∣ y ≥ 0}

Example 2

Consider the graph of the function below:

If we consider the possible return values for some input value, 'x', then we can see that 'y' is greater
than or equal to 5.

Therefore, the range is y ≥5

● Interval Notation: [5, ∞)

● Set Notation: {y ∈ R∣ y ≥ 5}

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:39)

[Link]
activity_id=70222&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.2.3

Example: Domain & Range

Find the domain & range of the following

1. y = 2x2 − 4

Solution available online

2. y= x

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:07)

[Link]
activity_id=70223&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.2.4

Find the range of y = −2x2 + 5.

A) (−∞, 5]

B)[5, ∞)

C) {y ∈ R∣ y ≤ 5}

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105225&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.2.5

Match the first two functions with their domain, and the second two function with their range.

A. (−∞, −4]
B. [0, ∞)
C. [1, ∞)
D. {y ∈ R∣ y is all real numbers}

y= x+1

y= x−1

y = 5x + 1

y = −x2 − 4

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105226&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.3 Operations with Functions

1.3.1

Operations with Functions

Let f (x) and g(x) be two functions. There are 4 basic operations of functions that can be used:

● Function Addition: f (x) + g(x)

● Function Subtraction: f (x) − g(x)

● Function Multiplication: f (x) ⋅ g(x)

f (x)
● Function Division: g(x) ; =0
g(x) 

Example 1

Given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 − 5, find:

a. f (x) + g(x)

Solution available online

b. f (x) − g(x)

Solution available online

c. f (x) ⋅ g(x)

Solution available online

f (x)
d.

g(x)

Solution available online

Function Composition (composite function)

Additionally, we can combine functions in one more by way composing them. (putting one function
"inside" another)

To compute f (g (x)), substitute g (x) for xin f (x). The domain of f (g (x)) is {x ∈ Dg : g(x) ∈

Df } .

Note: Another common notation for f (g (x)) is (f ∘ g ) (x). ∘ is the symbol for composition.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:52)

[Link]
activity_id=70219&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.3.2

Example: Function Composition

Find (f ∘ g)(x) and its domain if

1 1
f (x) = and g(x) =
x−1 x+2

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:23)

[Link]
activity_id=69963&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.3.3

The graphs of f (x) (in green) and g(x) (in purple) are provided on the same plot shown below:

A) Determine f(-2) + g(-2)

B) Determine f(2) x g(2)

C) Determine f(2)/g(2)

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105222&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.3.4

Let f (x) = 4x2 − 1 and g(x) = 2x − 1.

f (x)
Determine g(x) in simplified form.

f (x)
A) g(x) = 2x − 1

f (x)
B) g(x) = 2x + 1

f (x) 4x2 −1
C) g(x)
= 2x−1

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105223&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.4 Even and Odd Functions

1.4.1

Even and Odd Functions

A function f (x) is even if, for all x in its domain,

f (x) = f (−x)

A function f (x) is odd if, for all x in its domain if

f (−x) = −f (x)

Determining if a Function is Even or Odd

● Work out f (−x) first, and compare it to f (x). If they are the same, the function is even.
● If not, find −f (x) next and compare it to f (−x). If they are the same, the function is odd. If
not, the function is neither even nor odd.

Properties

● A function can be even, odd, or neither.

● The sum of two even functions is even. The sum of two odd functions is odd.
● The sum of an even and an odd function is neither even nor odd (unless one of them is zero).
● The product of two even or two odd functions is even.
● The product of an even and an odd function is odd.
● The reciprocal of an even/odd function is even/odd.

Examples:

2
● The function y = x2 is even because for any x, we have: f (x) = x2 = (−x) = f (−x)
3
● The function y = x3 is odd because for any x, we have: f (−x) = (−x) = −x3 = −f (x)

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:33)

[Link]
activity_id=69957&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.4.2

Example: Even and Odd Functions

Determine if the following function is even, odd, or neither: f (x) = x5 − 2x3 + 8

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:23)

[Link]
activity_id=69958&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.5 Transformations of Functions

1.5.1

Transformation of Graphs
The transformations of the graph of y = f (x) are

● Vertical Reflection: y = −f (x)

● Horizontal Reflection: y = f (−x)

● Vertical stretch/shrink: y = a [f (x)]

● Horizontal stretch/shrink: y = f (ax)

● Vertical shift: y = f (x ) + k

● Horizontal shift: y = f (x − k )

WIZE TIP

All transformations done to the y component (the entire function) changes it in the vertical
direction.
All transformations done to the x component changes it in the horizontal direction, most of
the time in the opposite way!

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:12)

[Link]
activity_id=69959&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.5.2

Example: Transformations of Functions

1
Given f (x ) = , state the equation of the transformed graph that has been:

x
● translated 2 units left
● reflected in the y-axis
● stretched vertically by a factor of 4
● translated 5 units up

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:24)

[Link]
activity_id=69960&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.5.3
5 5
State the transformations that have been applied to y = x 2 to get: y = 2 (−3x + 4) 2 − 1

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=104159&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.6 Polynomials

1.6.1

Basic of Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression consisting of one or more algebraic terms with coefficients, constants,
& variables raised to whole-number exponents.

The degree of a polynomial is determined by the value of the greatest exponent.

The following are examples of polynomials and their degree:

2x2 + 5x Degree 2

2a − 15 a3

Degree 3

−6y 6 − 4y 2 Degree 6

Types of Polynomials

● A monomial is a polynomial consisting of one term

○ Example: x2 , 4a, 3xyz

● A binomial is a polynomial consisting of two terms

○ Example: 2x − y, 3ab + 1

● A trinomial is a polynomial consisting of three terms

○ Example: ax2 + bx + c

First Degree Polynomials

● y=x
● Linear Monomial

Symmetry Point

Even/Odd Odd

X-Intercepts (0, 0)

Y-Intercepts (0, 0)

End Behavoiur x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → −∞

Min/Max None

Domain (−∞, ∞)

Range (−∞, ∞)

Second Degree Polynomials

● y = x2
● Quadratic Monomial

Symmetry Line

Even/Odd Even

X-Intercepts (0, 0)

Y-Intercepts (0, 0)

End Behavoiur x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → ∞

Min/Max Min at (0, 0)

Domain (−∞, ∞)

Range [0, ∞)

Third Degree Polynomials

● y = x3
● Cubic Monomial

Symmetry Point

Even/Odd Odd

X-Intercepts (0, 0)

Y-Intercepts (0, 0)

End Behavoiur x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → −∞

Min/Max None

Domain (−∞, ∞)

Range (−∞, ∞)

Fourth Degree Polynomials

● y = x4
● Quartic Monomial

Symmetry Line

Even/Odd Even

X-Intercepts (0, 0)

Y-Intercepts (0, 0)

End Behavoiur x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → ∞

Min/Max Min at (0, 0)

Domain (−∞, ∞)

Range [0, ∞)

Fifth Degree Polynomial

● y = x5
● Quintic Monomial

Symmetry Point

Even/Odd Odd

X-Intercepts (0, 0)

Y-Intercepts (0, 0)

End Behavoiur x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → −∞

Min/Max None

Domain (−∞, ∞)

Range (−∞, ∞)

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:52)

[Link]
activity_id=70230&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.6.2

Example: Basics of Polynomials

Let f (x) = x(x − 1)(x − 2) be shown below:

Identify the following:

● Degree
● End Behaviour
● X-Intercepts
● Domain & Range

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:11)

[Link]
activity_id=70229&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.6.3

Which of the following are polynomials?

A) −3x6 + 5x − 3

7
B) 3x x3 + 5x −

C) 15 x8
+ x
4
−9

D) -105

(7x + 10)(x4 − 3x2 + x − 19)

103x−1 + x2

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105232&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.6.4

Polynomial Graphs & Characteristics

A polynomial function of degree 'n' can be expressed as:

f (x) = axn + bxn−1 + ... + cx + d , where a, b, c, d ∈ R.

● The degree of the polynomial is 'n'.

● The leading coefficient is 'a'.

● A function is increasing xwhenever & y increase and decrease simultaneously.

● A function is decreasing whenever x is increasing & y is decreasing (or vice versa).

Positive, Odd Polynomials

When a > 0 & n is odd:

f (x) = x f (x) = x3 f (x) = x5

Degree 1 3 5

Symmetry Point Point Point

Min # of 1 1 1
X-Int

Max # of 1 3 5
X-Int

End Behaviour x → ∞, y → ∞ x → ∞, y → ∞ x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → −∞ x → −∞, y → −∞ x → −∞, y → −∞

Increasing (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

Decreasing NA NA NA

Negative, Odd Polynomials

When a < 0 & n is odd:

f (x) = −x f (x) = −x3 f (x) = −x5

Degree 1 3 5

Symmetry Point Point Point

Min # of 1 1 1
X-Int

Max # of 1 3 5
X-Int

End Behaviour x → ∞, y → −∞ x → ∞, y → −∞ x → ∞, y → −∞
x → −∞, y → ∞ x → −∞, y → ∞ x → −∞, y → ∞

Increasing NA NA NA

Decreasing (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

WIZE CONCEPT

For odd polynomial functions, the minimum number of real roots is 1 and the maximum number of
real roots is 'n'.

Positive, Even Polynomials

When a > 0 & n is even:

f (x) = x2 f (x) = x4

Degree 2 4

Symmetry Line Line

Min # of 0 2
X-Int

Max # of 0 4
X-Int

End Behaviour x → ∞, y → ∞ x → ∞, y → ∞
x → −∞, y → −∞ x → −∞, y → −∞

Increasing (0, ∞) (0, ∞)

Decreasing (−∞, 0) (−∞, 0)

Negative, Even Polynomials

When a < 0 & n is even:

f (x) = −x2 f (x) = −x4

Degree 2 4

Symmetry Line Line

Min # of 0 2
X-Int

Max # of 0 4
X-Int

End Behaviour x → ∞, y → −∞ x → ∞, y → −∞
x → −∞, y → ∞ x → −∞, y → ∞

Increasing (−∞, 0) (−∞, 0)

Decreasing (0, ∞) (0, ∞)

WIZE CONCEPT

For even polynomial functions, the minimum number of real roots is 0 and the maximum number
of real roots is 'n'.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:46)

[Link]
activity_id=70227&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.6.5

Example: Polynomial Graphs & Characteristics

Based on the following graph:

Find the following:

● Number of x-intercepts
● End Behaviour
● Odd or Even Degree
● Positive or Negative Leading Coefficient
● Degree of Polynomial

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:08)

[Link]
activity_id=70228&activity_type=CourseLesson

1.6.6

Based on the graph below, answer the following questions.

A) How many x-intercepts are there?

B) Is the leading coefficient positive or negative?

C) What is the degree of the polynomial?

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105231&activity_type=QuizQuestion

1.7 Factoring

1.7.1

Factoring Review
Factoring a polynomial function, f (x), can help us determine where the x-intercepts of of the function
are.

Factoring Trinomials in the form y = ax2 + bx + c Where a = 1

Example 1

Factor f (x) = x2 + 5x + 6

1. Find two numbers r and s that have a product of a × c (the first and last coefficients) and sum
of b (the middle coefficient).

Product of 1 × 6 = 6 and Sum of 5

The numbers are +2 and +3

2. Rewrite f (x) as a product of two binomials f (x) = (x + r)(x + s)

Therefore, f (x) = (x + 2)(x + 3)

Factoring Trinomials in the form y = ax2 + bx + c Where a =

1

Example 2

Factor f (x) = 2x2 − x − 1

1. Find two numbers r and s that have a product of a × c (the first and last coefficients) and sum
of b (the middle coefficient).

Product of 2 × (−1) = −2 and Sum of −1

The numbers are −2 and +1

2. Rewrite up the middle term bx as+rx + sx

f (x) = 2x2 − 2x + 1x − 1

3. Group the terms together in pairs then factor out the common factors

f (x) = (2x2 − 2x) + (1x − 1)

f (x) = 2x(x − 1) + 1(x − 1)
f (x) = (2x + 1)(x − 1)

Factoring a Difference of Squares y = a 2 x2 − b 2 :

If f (x) = a2 x2 − b2 , then f (x) = (ax − b)(ax + b) is in factored form.

Example 3

Factor f (x) = 4x2 − 49

f (x) = 4x2 − 49
= (2x − 7)(2x + 7)

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1.7.2

Factoring a Difference & Sum of Cubes

Factoring a Difference of Cubes y = a3 − b3

If f (x) = a3 − b3 , then f (x) = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) is in factored form

Example 1

Factor f (x) = x3 − 8

f (x) = x3 − 8
= (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)

Factoring a Sum of Cubes y = a3 + b3

If f (x) = a3 + b3 , then f (x) = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) is in factored form

Example 2

Factor f (x) = 8x3 + 27

f (x) = 8x3 + 27
= (2x + 3)(4x2 + 6x + 9)

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1.7.3

Example: Factoring
Factor 7x2 − 31x − 20

Solution available online

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1.7.4

Factor x2 − 7x − 18

Answer

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1.7.5

Factor 2x2 + 17x + 21

Answer

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1.7.6

Factor 8x3 − 125y 3

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1.8 Dividing Polynomials

1.8.1

Dividing Polynomials - Long Division

Long division is a method of determining the quotient between two polynomials.

2 → Quotient
Divisor → 4 )8 → Dividend
−8

0 → Remainder

The division statement can be written as follows:

Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder

Example
Let's divide x3 + 8x2 + 6x + 10 by x + 1.

Solution available online

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1.8.2

Example: Dividing Polynomials - Long Division

x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5
Divide using long division and write the division statement.
x−2

Solution available online

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1.8.3

Dividing Polynomials - Synthetic Division

Synthetic division is a shortcut from long division.

Synthetic Division used with Monic, Linear Factors (x − a).

Example 1

Let's divide x3 + 8x2 + 7x + 10 by x + 1 using synthetic division:

Solution available online

Synthetic Division used with Non-Monic Linear Factors (ax − b), a=

0

When a polynomial is divided by a non-monic linear factor using synthetic division, the quotient must
be divided by 'a'.

Example 2

3x4 − 4x2 + x − 3
Let's divide using synthetic division and write the division statement.
2x − 1

Solution available online

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1.8.4

Example: Dividing Polynomials - Synthetic Division

2x3 + 4x2 − 5
Divide using synthetic division and write the division statement.
x+3

Solution available online

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1.8.5

Find the remainder using synthetic division when (x4 + 5x3 − 10x + 2) ÷ (x − 2)

Answer

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1.8.6
3x3 + 14x + 11
Divide and choose the correct quotient.
x2 − 3x + 2

x+1

3x + 9

21x + 5

None of the above

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1.9 Rational Functions

1.9.1

Rational Functions
A rational function can be expressed as:

axn + bxn−1 + ...

f (x) =
cxm + dxm−1 + ...

where n is the largest exponent in the numerator and m is the largest exponent in the denomiator.

Properties of Rational Functions

● X-Intercepts can be found by setting f (x) = 0 and solving for x

● Vertical asymptotes can be found by setting the denominator to 0 and solving for x

● Horizontal asymptotes:

○ If n < m: There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0

a
○ If n = m: There is a horizontal asymptote at y =

c
○ If n > m: There is no horizontal asymptote. There is an oblique/diagonal asymptote.

● If factoring the numerator & denominator of f (x), any terms that cancel out indicates where a

missing point/hole in f (x)

● The domain is the set of all real numbers except where there are vertical asymptotes & missing

points/holes

● The range is the set of all real numbers except where there are horizontal asymptotes in most

cases

WATCH OUT!

Rational functions may only attain values strictly above or below horizontal asymptotes. This
will affect the range.

Example 1

2x − 3
Let's look at f (x) = .
x+1

x-Intercept: ( , 0)
●
3
2

● Vertical Asymptote: x = −1

● Horizontal Asymptote: y =2

● Missing Points/Holes: None

● Intervals of Increasing: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)

● Intervals of Decreasing: NA

● Domain: (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)

● Range: (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

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1.9.2

Solving Rational Equations

f (x)
Rational equations are a type of equation containing at least one rational term, , where

g(x)
f (x) & g(x) are continuous polynomials.

Rational equations can contain non-permissible values (NPV) that identify the restrictions of the
domain. They identify the value of the variable that gives a 0 in the denominator.

WIZE TIP

The NPV's are equivalent to the vertical asymptote and missing points/holes.

Example

2 5
Solve = , stating any NPV's.
x−1 x+2

Step 1.
Identify any non-permissible values.

Solution available online

Step 2.
Find the lowest common denominator and multiply each term by it.

Solution available online

Step 3.
Solve for ′ x′ .

Solution available online

Step 4.
Verify.

Solution available online

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1.9.3

Example: Solving Rational Equations

3x 1 7
Solve + = 2 , stating any NPV's.
x+5 x−2 x + 3x − 10

Step 1.
Identify any non-permissible values.

Solution available online

Step 2.
Find the lowest common denominator and multiply each term by it.

Solution available online

Step 3.
Solve for ′ x′ .

Solution available online

Step 4.
Verify.

Solution available online

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1.9.4

Example: Rational Functions

x2 − 6x + 8
A graph of the function f (x) = is sketched below:
x2 − 3x − 4

Identify the equations for any vertical & horizontal asymptotes, and missing points/holes.

Solution available online

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1.9.5
2 3 2x − 2
Given the equation − = 2 , answer the following questions.
x−3 4−x x − x − 12

Part 1
Solve for x.

x = (state the larger of the values)

x = (state the smaller of the values)

2 3 2x − 2
Given the equation − = 2 , answer the following questions.
x−3 4−x x − x − 12

Part 2
State the non-permissible values (NPV), meaning values that x cannot take.

The smallest NPV is x =

The second smallest NPV is x =

The largest NPV is x =

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1.9.6

Identify the vertical asymptotes, the horizontal asymptotes, the x-intercepts, and any missing points
of:

x2 − 11x + 18
f (x) =
x2 − 3x + 2

A) Vertical Asymptote x =

B) Horizontal/Oblique Asymptote y =

C) x-Intercepts x =

D) Missing Points (if there are none, put none) x =

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1.10 Radical Functions

1.10.1

Radical Functions
A radical function is defined as:

n
y= f (x)

where f (x) is a function and n ∈ W.

Square-Root Functions

y= x

x y
0 0
1 1
4 2

9 3
16 4

x-Intercept: (0, 0)
y -Intercept: (0, 0)
Domain: [0, ∞)
Range: [0, ∞)

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1.10.2

Solving Radical Equations

A radical equation is

f (x) = g(x)

where f (x) & g(x) are continuous polynomial functions.

Solutions to Radical Equations

Solve 2 x + 1 = 3. State the restrictions for 'x'.

Solution available online

Algebraic Solutions to Radical Equations

Solve 5x + 6 − 2 = x. State the domain and range

Solution available online

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1.10.3

Example: Solving Radical Equations

Solve graphically & algebraically, stating the restrictions on x:

x−4+x=4

Graphically:

Solution available online

Algebraically:

x−4+x=4

Solution available online

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1.10.4

Solve algebraically, stating any restrictions:

x+7+2= 3−x

A) x = −6 only

B) x = 2 only

C) x = −6 and x = 2 only

D) x = −2 only

E) x = −6 and x = −2 only

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1.11 Piecewise Functions

1.11.1

Piecewise Functions
A piecewise function is a function composed of 2 or more functions with restricted domains.

The notation used for a piecewise function is displayed below:

⎧Piece One
f (x) = ⎨Piece Two
⎩

Piece Three...

where each piece of f(x) represents a function and its domain.

A continuous piecewise function means:

● The function is continuous over the entire domain

● You do not have to lift your pencil from the paper in order to sketch its graph

● The output values on the boundary points are equivalent

A discontinuous piecewise function means:

● The function has discontinuities (holes, gaps, breaks, asymptotes) over the domain

● You have to lift your pencil from the paper in order to sketch its graph

● The output values on the boundary points are not equivalent

Example

The following piecewise function, f(x), is graphed below:

There are 2 discontinuities:

● x=0
● x ∈ (2, 3)

The domain of the function is:

[−5, 0] ∪ [0, 2] ∪ [3, 10]

The function f(x) can be expressed as 3 separate functions with restricted domains.

Blue Function:
y = x where − 5 ≤ x ≤ 0

Green Function:
y = x2 + 1 0, ≤ x ≤ 2

Purple Function:
y = 5, 3 ≤ x ≤ 10

Therefore, the blue, green, and purple function can be expressed as a piecewise function, f(x):

⎧x; −5 ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) = ⎨x2 + 1; 0≤x≤2
⎩

5; 3 ≤ x ≤ 10

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1.11.2

Example: Piecewise Functions

The function, f (x), is graphed below.

1. Find:
a. Any discontinuities for f (x).

b. The domain and range for f (x)

2. Find a piecewise function that describes f (x).

Part 1.

Solution available online

Part 2.

Solution available online

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1.11.3

The graph shown below is the graph of the piecewise function f (x).

Select the following statements that are true about f (x).

A) The domain of f (x) is [−4, 10]

B) The domain of f (x) is [−4, 0] ∪ [1, 4] ∪ [5, 10]

C) f (x) is discontinuous between (0, 1) and (4, 5)

⎧−x2 ; −4 < x < 0

D)f (x) = ⎨−3x + 1; 1<x<4
⎩1

5
x 5 < x < 10

⎧−x2 ; −4 ≤ x ≤ 0
E) f (x) = ⎨−3x + 1; 1≤x≤4
⎩1

5
x 5 ≤ x ≤ 10

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1.12 Absolute Value Functions

1.12.1

The Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function is defined as follows:

∣x∣ = {
x if x ≥ 0
−x if x < 0

More generally, if we would like to consider the composition of the absolute value function with
another function:

∣f (x)∣ = {
f (x) for x such that f (x) ≥ 0
−f (x) for x such that f (x) < 0

In these cases, we must determine the intervals on which our function is positive and negative
respectively.

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1.12.2

Example: Absolute Value Functions

Write out a piece-wise definition for the function

f (x) = ∣3x2 − 1∣

Solution available online

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1.13 Inverse Functions

1.13.1

Inverse Functions
An inverse function is a function in which the x and y values have switched.

● Denoted by f −1 (x)

● Pronounced 'f inverse x'

Two functions, f(x) and g(x), are inverses of each other if the following 2 properties are true:

1. (f ∘ g)(x) = x

2. (g ∘ f )(x) = x

Note: (f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x))

(g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x))

Horizontal Line Test

If any horizontal line intersects the graph of a function f (x) at more than one point, then f (x) is not
one-to-one. If a function is not one-to-one, it cannot have an inverse function.

Example
Find the inverse of the function y = x2 .
Solution available online

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1.13.2

Example: Inverse Functions

Given f (x) = 2x2 + 1:

1. Find the inverse f −1 (x)

2. Determine the domain and range for f (x) and compare it to the domain and range for f −1 (x)

Part 1.

Solution available online

Part 2.

Solution available online

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1.13.3
2x
If f −1 (x) = x−3
, then determine
f (x).

Enter your answer as f (x) = ...

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1.14 Exponential Functions

1.14.1

Exponential Functions
Exponential Rules

Multiplying Powers Dividing Powers Power of Powers

x y x+y ax
a ×a =a y
= ax−y
(ax )y = axy
a
ax a x
ax × bx = (a × b)x = ( ) (ax × by )n = axn × byn
bx

b
n
ax axn
( y ) = yn

b b

Fractional Exponents Negative Exponents Zero Exponent

1
a−n =
m
an = a0 = 1
n

am
an

1
an = n
a

Exponential Functions and Graphs

Exponential Functions have the form: f (x) = ax , for a > 1.

f (x) has a horizontal asymptote at .

The most common exponential function is f (x) = ex , where e is Euler's number.

Euler's Number

The exponential number (Euler's number) is e = 2.71828...

Example: Which is larger: 3−2 , 2−2 ,or e−2 ?

Solution available online

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1.14.2

Example: Solving Exponential Equations

2
Solve for x in 2x −x = 64

Solution available online

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1.14.3

Example: Exponential Functions

What are the domain and range of the following function: f (x) = ex−5 + 2

Solution available online

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1.15 Logarithmic Functions

1.15.1

Logarithmic Functions

For an exponential ax , (a > 0) to have an inverse function, we needa =

 1. In this case, the inverse
function is f (x) = loga x,which has domain x > 0, is defined by the following relationship

loga x = y ⟺ ay = x

f (x) has a vertical asymptote at

The Natural Logarithm has a base of e: ln x = loge x

Properties of Logarithms

For x, y, c ∈ IR and x, y > 0

1. log 1 = 0

2. log(xy) = log(x) + log(y)

3. log ( xy ) = log(x) − log(y)

4. log(xc ) = c log(x)

5. loga ax = x

6. aloga x = x

ln x
7. logc x =
ln c

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1.15.2

Example: Evaluating Logarithms

1
Evaluate log2 16 − log2 15 + log2 30

Solution available online

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1.15.3

Example: Inverse of Logarithms

Find the inverse of f (x) = ln (x − 4) and state the domain and range of both f (x) and f −1 (x).

Steps:
1. Write y = f (x )
Solution available online

2. Solve for x

Solution available online

3. Swap x and y

Solution available online

4. Replace y with f −1 (x), this is the inverse function

Solution available online

Domain and range:

Solution available online

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1.15.4

Solve for x in the equation 2 ln x = ln 4 + ln (x − 1).

x = 1 only

x = 2 only

x = ±2 only

x = −1, x = 2 only

x = 1, x = −2 only

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1.16 Trigonometric Functions

1.16.1

Trigonometric (Trig) Functions

SOH CAH TOA

Using a right triangle, Trig Functions can be defined by using the hypotenuse, opposite side, and
adjacent sides.

opp hyp
sin θ = hyp
csc θ = opp

adj hyp
cos θ = hyp

sec θ = adj

opp adj
tan θ = adj
cot θ = opp

CAST Rule (All Students Take Calculus)

We can determine the sign (positive or negative) for our trig functions based on which quadrant the
angle measure falls in.

• Quadrant 1: All trig ratios are positive

• Quadrant 2: Only sin ratio is positive
• Quadrant 3: Only tan ratio is positive

• Quadrant 4: Only cos ratio is positive

Trig Graphs

Special Triangles

So called 30-60-90 Triangles and 45-45-90 Triangles help us find exact values of trig functions.

1. Draw out the angle given

2. Identify the relative acute angle (RAA)--angle made with the x-axis
3. Find the trig ratio of the RAA using special triangles
4. Make the trig ratio positive or negative based on the CAST rule

Example: tan ( π3 ) =

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1.16.2

Example: Trig Values

Evaluate the following

7π
a) tan
6

Solution available online

15π
b) sin
4

Solution available online

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1.16.3

Trig Identities

Basic Identities

sin θ
● tan θ =
cos θ

● sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

● tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

Double Angles

● sin (2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ

● cos (2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ or 2 cos2 θ − 1 or 1 − 2 sin2 θ

Angle Sum & Difference

● sin (x ± y ) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y

● cos (x ± y ) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y

Even and Odd Properties

● Odd function: sin (−θ ) = − sin θ

● Even function: cos (−θ ) = cos θ

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1.16.4
12
Given cos θ= 13
and 3π

2
< θ < 2π , find the exact values of 13 sin 2θ.

Answer

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1.16.5

Solve the equation 2 sin2 x = 3 sin x − 1 on the interval [0, 2π ].

π
2

π π
,
6 2

π π 5π
, ,
6 2 6

π π 5π
. , ,π
6 2 6

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1.17 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.17.1

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Sine Function

f (x) = sin x ↔ f −1 (x) = arcsin x or sin−1 x

Inverse Cosine Function

f (x) = cos x ↔ f −1 (x) = arccos x or cos−1 x

Inverse Tangent Function

f (x) tan x ↔ f −1 (x) = arctan x or tan−1 x

π −π
Inverse Tangent has horizontal asymptotes at y = and y =
2 2

Dealing with Inverse Trig Functions

If you are given a question with different trig functions like tan (arcsin x) =?

● let θ = trig−1 (x)

● then we have trig(θ) =x

● Draw a triangle based on this θ

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1.17.2

Example: Trig & Inverse Trig Values

Determine the values of the following:

[Link] (arccos ( 12 ))

Solution available online

b. arcsin (sin ( π6 ))

Solution available online

c. arcsin (sin 3π
4
)
Solution available online

d. sin (cos−1 0).

Solution available online

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1.17.3

Find the exact value of tan [arcsin (− 35 )]

Answer

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1.17.4

Find the exact value of sin (2 cos−1 x)

A) 2 1 − x2

B) 2x 1 − x2

C) 2 1−x
2

1−x2
D) 2x

E) None of the above

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2. Limits & Continuity

(Exam Weighting: 4-7%)
2.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 1: Limits & Continuity

We start our journey in Calculus with the idea of closeness. By the end of this unit, you will be familiar
with the following concepts and should be able to apply them to real-world application problems:

1. What is a Limit?
In the study of Calculus, a limit is a very important concept.

● In plain english, a limit is the idea of how close you can get to a particular point.

● In terms of math language, "the limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a specific value"
means that we want to know the f(x) or y value of a function when the x coordinate is really
really close to a specific x value.

We don't want to have to write out "the limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a specific value"
everytime we talk about a limit. So, we invent a cool new math notation for this: lim f (x). This is read

x→a
as "the limit of f(x) as x approaches a".

But the x-axis is represented by a 2-dimensional line, meaning that we can approach a particular
value on the x-axis either from the left side or from the right side of that point. So, to be exact in math,
we can talk about one-sided limits:

● a left-hand side limit lim f (x) , which means we want to find what the f(x) or y value

x→a−
approaches as we get really close to the value of a on the x-axis coming from the left-side. If the
f(x) or y value approaches a number say L, then we say that this left-hand side limit exists and is
equal to L.

● a right-hand side limit lim f (x), which means we want to find what the f(x) or y value

x→a+
approaches as we get really close to the value of a on the x-axis coming from the right-side. If
the f(x) or y value approaches a number say L, then we say that this right-hand side limit exists
and is equal to L.

Let's consider what happens as x approaches the value a from the left and from the right. If it just so
happens that the value of the left-hand side limit equals L ( lim f (x) = L) and the value of the right-

x→a−
hand side limit also equals L ( lim f (x) = L), then we say the limit of f(x) as x approaches a exists

x→a+
and equals to L: lim f (x) = L

x→a

2. How do we estimate the limit value from a graph?

If we are given the graph of f(x), we can find the left-hand side limit as x approaches the value a by
following the graph as the x coordinate gets really close to a from the left side and seeing if the y
value gets really close to one specific number. We can find the right-hand side limit as x approaches
the value of a by following the graph as the x coordinate gets really close to a from the right side and
seeing if the y value gets really close to one specific number. If these two numbers happen to be the
same, then we know that the limit as x approaches a exists and equals to this number.

As you follow the graph from the left or right, if you find that the y value either goes up to infinity,
down to negative infinity, or goes back and forth (up and down) and doesn't settle on a specific
number, then we say that the one-sided limit does not exist. Even if both one-sided limits exist, if they
don't equal the same number, then we say that the overall limit does not exist.

3. How do we estimate the limit value from a table of values?

If we are given a table that contains some x and f(x) values, and we're asked to estimate the limit
value as x approaches some value a, then we should look at our table to see if we are given values of
x that get closer and closer to a (from the left and right sides), then check to see if the y values get
closer and closer to a specific value. If they do, then we say that the limit exists and equals to that
specific value. If these y values don't get closer and closer to a specific y value, then we say that the
limit does not exist.

4. How do we estimate the limit value given an algebraic expression?

If we are given an algebraic expression lim f (x) and asked to estimate this limit value, we can

x→a
substitute the value of x = a directly into f(x) and simplify. If we get a number value, then the limit
exists and equals to that number. Here are some additional tips and reminders:

● After we do the direct substitution, if we get a number like 3, -5, or 0, then the limit exists and
equals to that number.

● After we do the direct substitution, if we get a number like 05 , then the limit exists and equals to 0

because 0 divided by any non-zero number is still just 0.

● After we do the direct substitution, if we get something like 50 , then the limit does not exists

because it will be either infinity (+∞) or negative infinity (−∞).

*Be careful with this! If we take a non-zero number like 5 and try to divide it by the number 0, we
get something that is undefined -- it's not possible to calculate! But if we take a non-zero
number like 5 and try to divide it by a number that is really close to 0 (but not exactly 0), like the
number 0.00000000001, then we get an answer that is really large (like 10000000000). So, the
closer the number is to 0 when doing this division, the larger the answer will be. That's why
theoretically, if we divide a non-zero number like 5 by a number that approaches 0, we will get
one of the infinities (+∞ or −∞), but since infinity is not a number, we say that the limit does
not exist.

5. Given an algebraic expression, what if we get a limit value that doesn't make sense like 0/0?

After direction substitution, if we get something weird looking like 0/0, infinity/infinity, infinity - infinity,
etc. (we can these indeterminate forms), then we need to do some algebraic manipulation to find out
limit. Here's what we can try:

a. If the function is a rational function, try factoring the numerator and denominator
completely, sometimes you'll be able to divide out any common factors. Then try a direct
substitution again and see if you get an answer for the limit.

b. If the function involves a square root, try multiplying and dividing by the conjugate of this
square root. Then you should try to simplify the expression and see if you get an answer for
the limit.

c. If the function involves sin, cos, or any other bounded function (meaning a function that is
greater than a certain value and less than a certain value on a specific interval), try using

something called the Squeeze Theorem.

6. What happens when we get an infinite limit? (Vertical Asymptote)

Whether you are given a graph, table of values, or an algebraic expression for your function, if the y
value approaches positive or negative infinity as the x values gets really close to the value a, then we
say that we have an infinite limit.

In the context of a graph, that means that x = a is a vertical asymptote. Here are the possible
scenarios as x gets really close to a:

● The y value of the graph keeps going up and up, approaching positive infinity, as x gets really
close to a coming from the left and right, then x = a is a vertical asymptote

● The y value of the graph keeps going down and down, approaching negative infinity, as x gets
really close to a coming from the left and right, then x = a is a vertical asymptote

● The y value of the graph keeps going up and up, approaching positive infinity, as x gets really
close to a coming from one side, and it goes down and down, approaching negative infinity, as x
gets really close to a coming from the other side, then x = a is a vertical asymptote

● You can also have that the y value of the graph goes to positive or negative infinity as x gets
really close to a coming from one side, but coming from the other side, the y value does not
approach infinity, we still say that there is a vertical asymptote at x = a

● If the y value does not approach positive or negative infinity as x gets really close to a from
either side, then we say that the graph does not have a vertical asymptote at x = a

7. How do we find the limit at infinity? (Horizontal Asymptote)

Whether you are given a graph, table of values, or an algebraic expression for your function, we can
estimate the limit of the function at infinity -- meaning we want to see if the y value approaches a
specific number as the x coordinate goes far far to the right (positive infinity) or far far to the left
(negative infinity). In the context of a graph, this means we're checking if the graph has a horizontal
asymptote y = L. Here are the possible scenarios:

● As the x coordinate approaches positive infinity, the y value approaches a specific number L. As
the x coordinate approaches negative infinity, the y value approaches the same specific number

L. Then we say that there is one horizontal asymptote y = L

● As the x coordinate approaches positive infinity, the y value approaches a specific number L. As
the x coordinate approaches negative infinity, the y value approaches a different number M.
Then we say that there are two horizontal asymptotes y = L and y = M

● As the x coordinate approaches positive infinity, the y value approaches a specific number L. But
as the x coordinate approaches negative infinity, the y value does not approach any specific
number. Then we say that there is one horizontal asymptote y = L. (Same scenario if y
approaches L only as x approaches negative infinity)

● As the x coordinate approaches positive or negative infinity, the y values do not approach any
specific numbers. Then we say that there are no horizontal asymptotes

8. When is a function discontinuous?

A function is discontinuous when you have to lift your pen when drawing the graph. There are 3 types
of discontinuities:

1. Jump discontinuity: when there is a gap between points in the graph. For example,
approaching x = 2 from the left, the y value is 5, but approaching x = 2 from the right, the y
value is 3 -- there is a clear gap in the graph.

2. Removable discontinuity: when there is a hole in the graph at a specific x coordinate, but
otherwise you can draw the entire graph without lifting your pen. This happens when you get
0/0 when evaluating the limit, but after you factor the numerator and denominator fully, you can
cancel out the factor x-a, then there will be a hole at x = a.

3. Vertical asymptote: when the y value of the graph goes up and up to positive infinity or down
and down to negative infinity as x approaches the value a.

9. What does continuity mean?

If you can draw the graph without lifting your pen at a specific point x = a, then we say that the
function is continuous at x = a. Mathematically, this means that lim f (x) = f (a), the value of the

x→a
limit as x approaches a exactly equals to the value of the function at the point x = a.

If you can draw the graph without lifting your pen at every point x = a on the domain of the function,
then we say that the function is continuous on its entire domain. Mathematically, this means that
lim f (x) = f (a) for every point a in the domain of the function.

x→a

10. What is the Intermediate Value Theorem?

The intermediate value theorem says that if f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and
d is a number between f(a) and f(b), then the theorem guarantees that there is at least one number c
between a and b, such that f(c) = d.

In plain english, this means that if you can connect two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) with a curve that
has no breaks in, then you can't skip over any of the y values between y1 and y2. In other words, you
will get any y value between y1 and y2 at some x coordinate that is between x1 and x2.

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2.1 Basics

2.1.1

Limit Basics
When we talk about limits we look for what is happening close to a function at a certain value of x.
The question is: What happens to a function's output (the y value) as we approach a certain input
(the x value)?

Definition of a Limit

Let f (x) be a function and let a and L be real numbers.

If f (x) approaches L as x approaches a then we say f (x) has limit L and denote it as

lim f (x) = L

x→a

Note: We read this as "the limit as x approaches a of f (x) equals L".

WATCH OUT!

● a does not have to be in the domain of f (x)

● x does not necessarily ever need to be equal to a (just approach it)

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2.1.2

Example: Limits
Find the value of lim f (x) where

x→0

f (x) = {
0 , if x ≤ 2
1 , if x > 2

Solution available online

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2.2 Limit Laws

2.2.1

Limit Laws
We can compute limits more easily by using the following limit laws.

If lim f (x) = L, lim g(x) = M , and k is a constant, then:

x→a x→a

1. lim [f (x) + g (x)] = L + M

x→a

2. lim [f (x) − g (x)] = L − M

x→a

3. lim [f (x) g (x)] = LM

x→a

4. lim kf (x) = kL

x→a

f (x )
lim [ ]=
5. L
, (M 
= 0)
g (x )

x→a M
m m
6. lim [f (x)] n = L n , (L > 0 if n is even, and L =
 0 if m/n < 0)

x→a

7. If f (x) ≤ g(x) for every x in an interval containing a, then L ≤ M

WIZE TIP

Direct Substitution
Always first try to substitute the value that x approaches directly into the expression → if you get
a number, that's the value of the limit!

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2.2.2

Evaluate the limit:

2
lim [ 2 + 1]
x
x→3 x − 5

Answer

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2.3 One-Sided Limits

2.3.1

One-Sided Limits
Sometimes we are only concerned with approaching an x value from one side. This idea leads us to
left and right hand limits.

Right-Hand Limit

If f (x) approaches L as x approaches a and x > a,then we say that L is the right-hand limit of f
and write

lim f (x) = L.

x→a+

Left-Hand Limit

If f (x) approachesL as x approaches a and x < a ,then we say that L is the left-hand limit of f and
write

lim f (x) = L.

x→a−

When the Left and Right Limits are Equal

The limit of f (x) as x approaches a exists if both left and right limits exist and are equal. In that case,
we have

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim f (x) = L

x→a− x→a x→a

WATCH OUT!

If the left hand limit does not equal the right hand limit then the two sided limit does not exisit!

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2.3.2

Example: One-Sided Limits

The function f is defined by

−3x + 2 If x ≤ 1
f (x) = {
2x3 If x > 1

Compute the left and right limits of f . Does lim f (x) exist ?

x→1

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2.3.3

Find:

∣x − 2∣
a) lim+
x−2

x→2

∣x − 2∣
b) lim−
x−2

x→2

∣x − 2∣
c) lim
x→2 x − 2

If the limit does not exist, type DNE

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2.4 Infinite Limits

2.4.1

Infinite Limits
Infinite Limits describe the behavior of functions whose values become arbitrarily large either
positively or negatively. The answer to these limits is ±∞.

(Positive) Infinite Limits

Let f (x) be a function defined on both sides of a except possibly at a itself. If f (x) grows arbitrarily
large as x approaches a then

lim f (x) = ∞

x→a

(Negative) Infinite Limits

Let f (x) be a function defined on both sides of a except possibly at a itself. If f (x) grows arbitrary
small as xapproaches a then

lim f (x) = −∞

x→a

WIZE TIP

When trying to evaluate infinite limits at a ,you will obtain a 0 in the denominator. Your job is to
figure out if the function is growing positively or negatives close to a.

Vertical Asymptotes

A function f (x) has a vertical asymptote with equation x = a if at least one of these statements is
true:

lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim+ f (x) = ±∞

x→a− x→a

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2.4.2

Example: Infinite Limits

For the following graph, find:

i) lim f (x)

x→5+

ii) lim f (x)

x→5−

Note: The graph above has a vertical asymptote at x = 5.

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2.4.3

Example: Infinite Limits

Find the following limit

7x − 6
lim+
3x − 7

x→ 73

Solution available online

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2.5 Limits at Infinity

2.5.1 Limits at Infinity

Limits at Infinity
Here we would like to know what happens to a function if x becomes arbitrarily large (either
positively or negatively).

Limits at (Positive) Infinity

If a function f (x) approaches L as x grows arbitrarily large, then

lim f (x) = L

x→∞

Limits at (Negative) Infinity

If a function f (x) approaches L as x grows arbitrarily small, then

lim f (x) = L

x→−∞

WIZE TIP
1
lim = 0 , for any N > 0
x→±∞ xN

Since 1 divided by something "very large" is very close to 0.

WIZE TIP

If you are dealing with powers of in a limit, it might help to factor out the largest power of in
the numerator and denominator (if it’s a fraction)

Horizontal Asymptotes

A function f (x) has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = L if at least one of these statements
is true:

lim f (x) = L or
lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞

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2.5.2

Example: Limits at Infinity

For the following graph, find:

i) lim f (x)

x→∞

ii) lim f (x)

x→−∞

Note: that the lines y = ±3 are horizontal asymptotes of f (x)

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2.5.3

Example: Limits at Infinity

Find the following limit

x3 + x − 1
lim
x→∞ 2x3 + 3x2 + 2

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2.5.4

Example: Finding Asymptotes with Limits

1
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of f (x) = x+5
by using infinite limits and limits at

infinity.

Solution available online

●
●

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2.5.5

9x6 − x
lim =

x3 + 1

x→∞

Answer

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2.5.6

3x6 − x + 1
Evaluate lim

2x3

x→−∞

*Be careful with the negative sign in −∞! Check out the hint for more info.

a. 0

b. 23

c. − 23

d. ∞

e. −∞

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2.6 Indeterminate Forms

2.6.1

Indeterminate Forms
Sometimes evaluating limit of a complicated function using limit rules results in indeterminate terms
such as

0 ∞
, ,∞
0 ∞
− ∞, 00 , 1∞ , 0 ⋅ ∞

For these cases we have to use limit techniques to find the limit of the function.

Rational functions

For limits of the rational functions in the form of 00 , extract the factor on numerator and denominator

which makes them zero (The problematic factor) and cancel it out.

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2.7 Computing Limits by Factoring

2.7.1

Computing Limits by Factoring

One common way of dealing with the 00 indeterminate form is to factor the numerator or the

denominator (or both) and cancel things out.

WIZE CONCEPT

Following identities can be useful in extracting a problematic factor:

a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

Note: You can always use long division to break down any complicated polynomial into its factors!

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2.7.2

Example: Computing Limits by Factoring

Find the following limit

x2 − 25
lim
x→5 x − 5

Solution available online

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2.7.3

Find the following limit

x−3
lim
x→3 x3 − 27

Answer

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2.8 Computing Limits by Multiplying by the

Conjugate
2.8.1

Computing Limits by Multiplying by the Conjugate

When dealing with limits involving square roots or certain trig identities, sometimes the correct idea
is to multiply by a "special 1". This special one is the conjugate over itself.

Conjugates

The conjugate of a + b is a − b.

The conjugate of a − b is a + b.

Notice that multiplying by a conjugate gives us the difference of squares formula:

(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2

Quick Examples

1. x+ y x−y
x− y =( x− y) =

x+ x+ y

2. 1 1 1 + cos x 1 + cos x 1 + cos x

= = =
1 − cos x (1 − cos x) (1 + cos x) 1 − cos2 x sin2 x

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2.8.2

Example: Multiply by the Conjugate

Find the following limit

x2 − 9
lim
x− 3

x→3

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2.8.3

Find the following limit

1 − sin x
limπ
cos x

x→ 2

Answer

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2.9 Computing Limits by Getting a

Common Denominator
2.9.1

Computing Limits by Getting a Common Denominator

When limit problems contain two fractions being added or subtracted, the technique is usually to get
a common denominator. Sometimes getting a common denominator is enough. Sometimes we need
to factor as well or use another limit technique to cancel things out.

How to get a Common Denominator

Remember the basic strategy for getting a common denominator between fractions:

a c ad bc ad + bc
+ =

+
=

b d bd bd bd

Cross Multiplication

Alternatively, you can use the cross multiply technique and skip the middle step:

a c ad + bc
+ =

b d bd

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2.9.2

Example: Getting a Common Denominator

Find the following limit

1
− x1 4
lim

x→4 x − 4

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2.9.3

Find the following limit

1 1
− 20−xx
lim

x→10 x − 10

Answer

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2.10 The Fundamental Trig Limit

2.10.1

The Fundamental Trig Limit

The following identify is very useful in evaluating many limits in which our previous techniques won't
work. This identity is sometimes known as the Fundamental Trigonometric Limit.

sin θ
lim =1

θ→0 θ

WIZE TIP

θ
This works with the reciprocal as well! lim =1
sin θ

θ→0

A More General Version

We can use the Fundamental Trig Limit more generally, if lim g(x) = 0 then

x→a

sin (g(x))
lim =1

x→a g(x)

A Similar Identity

Another identity that also arises is

1 − cos θ
lim =0

θ→0 θ

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2.10.2

Example: The Fundamental Trig Limit

Find the following limit

sin 5x
lim
x→0 sin 3x

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2.11 The Squeeze Theorem

2.11.1

The Squeeze Theorem

Some limits can be solved by bounding a function above and below. This lets us squeeze the function
between two limits which turn out to be the same when done correctly!

Squeeze Theorem (Squeeze Law)

Letf (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) , for all x around a, except possibly at x = a.

if lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a

then lim g(x) = L.

x→a

WIZE TIP

Notice how the f(x) and h(x) functions bound the g(x) function above and below and then
have the same limit!

WATCH OUT!

The Squeeze Theorem is usually only applied on functions with well known boundaries such
as Sinx, Cosx, and Arctanx.

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2.11.2

Example: The Squeeze Theorem

Find the following limit

1
lim+ (x sin )
x2 + x

x→0

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2.11.3

Find the following limit

1
lim x2 arctan

x→0 x

Answer

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2.12 Continuity

2.12.1

Continuity
In calculus, we think of a function being continuous if we can draw its graph without picking up the
pencil as we draw. A function will be continuous if it has no breaks or gaps.

Continuity at a Point

A function f is said to be continuous at a point a of its domain if all of the following conditions are
satisfied:

a) f (x) is defined at x=a

b) lim f (x) exists

x→a

c) lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Continuity on an Interval

A function f is said to be continuous on an interval (a, b) if it is continuous for every c in(a, b).

Types of Discontinuities

1. Asymptote

2. Jump

3. Hole

4. Oscillating

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2.12.2

Example: Continuity

sin 2x sin 2x
Consider f (x) = . Does lim
exist? Is f continuous at x = 0 ?

x x→0 x

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2.12.3

Determine the values of a and b such that f (x) is continuous, where

⎧ax + b , if x ≤ 1
f (x) = ⎨2b + 1 , if 1 < x ≤ 2
⎩

4ax − 13b , if x > 2

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2.13 The Intermediate Value Theorem

2.13.1

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Continuity is very powerful since it can tell us if a function attains certain values. In particular,
continuity tells us function outputs between certain values.

Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then for any L between f (a)and f (b) there exists a point c ∈ (a, b)
for which f (c) = L.

WIZE CONCEPT

In other words, since f is continuous, f (x) , covers all the values between f (a) and f (b).

WIZE TIP

Whenever the question asks about roots or solutions of an equation L = 0 in IVT.

Procedure for Problem Solving

1. Determine the domain of significance.

2. Evaluate the function at the endpoints of the domain.
3. Determine if the points of interest are within the end points. If not, consider choosing a new
domain.

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2.13.2

Example: Intermediate Value Theorem

Determine if the functionf (x) = x3 − 6x + 4has a root in the domain [0, 1].

Solution available online

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2.13.3

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that x2 + x − 3 = 2 has a solution on the interval

(2,3).

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2.14 Exam-Like Practice Questions

2.14.1
x2 − 1
Evaluate the limit lim
x→1 ∣x − 1∣

a. 0

b. 2

c. −1

d. −2

e. The limit does not exist

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2.14.2
3x2 −5
State the asymptotes of the function f (x ) = 4x2 −1 .

a. Horizontal Asymptote: y= 34

Vertical Asymptote: x = ± 12

b. Horizontal Asymptote: y = 34

Vertical Asymptote: x = ± 14

c. Horizontal Asymptote: y = 43

Vertical Asymptote: x = ± 12

d. Horizontal Asymptote: y= 43

Vertical Asymptote: x = ± 14

e. Horizontal Asymptote: y = ±∞
Vertical Asymptote: Does not exist

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2.14.3
sin 2x
Find the value of lim .
x→0 sin 3x

a. 0

b. 1

c. 23

d. 32

e. The limit does not exist

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2.14.4

Find the following limit:

−5(x + 1)
lim
x−2

x→2

Exist

Doesn't exist

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2.14.5
2 − x − 2x2
lim
3x2 + 5

x→−∞

Answer

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2.14.6
x2 + 2
lim
x→∞ x2 − 3x + 1

Answer

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2.14.7
x5 − 1
lim
x→1 x − 1

Answer

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2.14.8

Evaluate the left and right hand limits.

a)
5∣x − 7∣
lim−
x−7

x→7

b)
5∣x − 7∣
lim+
x−7

x→7

c) Does the two-sided limit exist?

5∣x − 7∣
lim
x→7 x − 7

The left hand limit is

The right hand limit is

Does the limit exist?

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2.14.9

Evaluate the following limits.

x+7−3
lim

x−2

x→2

Answer

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2.14.10
∣4x − 1∣ − ∣4x + 1∣
Evaluate the limit lim
.

x→0 x

-8

Does not exist

None of the above

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2.14.11

Practice: Evaluating Limits

Given the following function, evaluate the limits below.

⎧−3x + 5 if x < −1

f (x ) = ⎨
−10 if x = −1
9 − x2
⎩
if −1<x≤2

1 − ∣2x − 3∣ if x>2

Enter DNE if the limit does not exist.

a. i) lim f (x) =

x→−1−

a. ii) lim f (x) =

x→−1+

a. iii) lim f (x) =

x→−1

b. i) lim f (x) =

x→2−

b. ii) lim f (x) =

x→2+

b. iii) lim f (x) =

x→2

c. i) lim f (x) =

x→3−

c. ii) lim f (x) =

x→3+

c. iii) lim f (x) =

x→3

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2.14.12

Does 2x3 − 2 + cos(x) = 0 have a root in (0,1) ?

Yes

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2.14.13

Does x3 − 1 + sin (x) = 0 have a root in [0, 1]?

True

False

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2.14.14

= esin( 2 ) .
πx
Show that there is at least one solution to the equation ln x

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2.14.15

Evaluate the following limit:

sin(3x) cos(2x)
lim
sin(5x)

x→0

Answer

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2.14.16
2
Determine lim tanx2 2x .

x→0

(a) 14

(b) 12

(d) 4

e) None of the above

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2.14.17

Suppose that f(x) is a function such that

3x2 − x + 6 ≤ f (x) ≤ Ax − 3

for x close to 4. In order for us to use the Squeeze Theorem to find lim f (x), what is the value of A

x→4
and the limit lim f (x)?
x→4

lim f (x)

x→4

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2.14.18

1
e x ⋅ cos (x2 − 2)

Evaluate lim .
ln x

x→∞

a. −e

b. e

c. 0

d. The limit does not exist

e. None of the above

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2.14.19
1
Find lim (x sin )
x2 + x

x→0

Answer

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2.14.20

For what values of a is the following function continuous on (−∞, ∞).

f (x) = { x2 −(2+a)x+2a
ax3 − x2 + sin(πx) x < 2
x≥2

x−1

Answer

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 17 practice problems on [Link]

3. Differentiation 1:
Basics & Fundamental
Properties (Exam
Weighting: 4-7%)
3.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 2: Differentiation 1: Basics &

Fundamental Properties
Calculus is the study of change -- how quickly does a car's speed change on the highway? How
quickly is a plant growing? How slowly is the volume of an ice cube decreasing as it melts?

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following concepts and should be able to apply
them to real-world application problems:

1. What's the difference between average rate of change vs instantaneous rate of change?

● The average rate of change means how quickly a quantity changes between two defined
points in time. We start by fixing two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), where x is the independent
variable that usually represents time, and y is the dependent variable that can represent
quantities such as length, weight, area, price, etc. Then the average rate of change is calculated
y2 − y1
as .

x2 − x1

For example, if a child is 80 cm tall when she is 7 years old and 90 cm tall when she is 9 years

90 cm − 80 cm
old, then the average rate of change in her height from 7 to 9 years old is =
9 years − 7 years

10 cm
= 5 cm/year. So, we can say that on average, this child grew 5 cm per year.
2 years

○ Graphically, we can see that y2 − y1

is the slope of the secant line between the two points

x2 − x1

(x1, y1) and (x2, y2).

● The instantaneous rate of change means how quickly a quantity changes at a particular
"instance in time". For example, we might want to know how fast a child is growing at the time
when she is 7 years old. If we take a snapshot of her height when she turns 7 years old, we can't
tell how quickly she is growing at that exact point in time. But what we can do is look at the
average rate of change in her height the day before she turns 7 and the day after she turns 7,
this will give us an approximate guess for how fast she's growing when she is exactly 7 years
old. To get a better and better approximation for this instantaneous rate of change, we can
calculate the average rate of change in her height in a smaller and smaller time interval around
this 7 year old mark -- for example, we can find the average rate of change in her height 1
second before she turns 7 years old and 1 second after she turns 7 years old. This idea of
"closing in" on a smaller and smaller time interval is the idea of a "limit".

○ Mathematically, we can approximate this instantaneous rate of change by using the

f (x) − f (a)
difference quotient . Then, to get a better and better approximation for this
x−a

instantaneous rate of change, we will look at the limit as x gets really close to a, meaning we
f (x) − f (a)
want to find the limit value lim .
x−a

x→a

○ f (a + h) − f (a)
Alternatively, we can also use another difference quotient , then look at the

h
f (a + h) − f (a)
limit value lim .

h→0 h

○ Graphically, both of these limits represent the slope of the tangent line to the curve f(x) at the
point where x = a. (Recall that a tangent line the the curve f(x) at the point x = a is a straight
line that touches the curve exactly once at x = a around the point x = a).

2. What does a derivative mean?

Instead of calling it "the instantaneous rate of change" or "slope of the tangent line" we come up with
a shorthand term to represent this -- this is called the "derivative"

● Derivative of f(x) at the point x = a can be written as f'(a), and it is a number that represents how
quickly f(x) is changing at the point when x = a, it also represents the slope of the tangent line to
the curve f(x) at the point where x = a. To calculate the value of f'(a), we can use either one of
f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
these limits: f ′ (a) = lim or f ′ (a) = lim
x−a

h→0 h x→a

● Derivative of f(x) in general (not at a specific point x = a) can be written as f'(x), and it is a
function that represents how quickly f(x) is changing at any given x value, it also represents the
slope of the tangent line to the curve f(x) at a given point x. The function f(x) can be found using
f (x + h) − f (x)
the limit f ′ (x) = lim

h→0 h
dy
Sometimes, instead of using the math "prime" notation f'(x), you may also see the Leibniz notation dx

df df dy
or dx . These all mean the same thing. Also, f'(a) can be written as dx ∣x=a or dx ∣x=a .

3. Derivative Rule: Power Rule & Constant Rule

f (x + h) − f (x)
Instead of having to evaluate the limit f ′ (x) = lim
everytime to find the derivative

h→0 h
of f(x), there are some "shortcuts" for calculating the derivatives of different functions, these shortcuts
are sometimes called "derivative rules". Two of these shortcuts are called the power rule and the
constant rule.

● The power rule tells us that the derivative of xn is nxn-1. For example, if f(x) = x3, then the
derivative f'(x) = 3x2; if f(x) = 1/x4, which can be rewritten as f(x)=x-4, then the derivative f'(x) =
-4x-5. This works for radical (root) functions as well because we can rewrite radicals (roots) as
fractional exponents of x.

● The constant rule tells us that the derivative of a stand-alone constant (meaning a number) is 0.
For example, if f(x) = -3, then the derivative f'(x) = 0; if f(x) = e2, which is a constant, then the
derivative f'(x) = 0.

4. Derivative Rule: Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rule

Another set of derivative shortcuts (or rules) involve the sum and difference of terms, and when you
have a constant multiplied by a term:

● Sum and difference rule: When you have two or more functions added together or subtracted,
you can find the derivative of each function separately. For example, if f(x) = x4+x2-x3+5, then
f'(x) = 4x3 + 2x - 3x2 + 0.

● Constant multiple rule: When you have a constant (meaning a number) times a function, you
can just multiply that constant by the derivative of the function. For example, if f(x) = 3x7, then
f'(x) = 3(7x6), which then simplifies to f'(x) = 21x6. Be careful, don't mix up the constant rule and
the constant multiple rule -- the constant rule says that the derivative of a stand-alone constant
is 0 (the constant has to be by itself, it can be added to or subtracted from a function); the
constant multiple rule says that the derivative of a constant times a function is just the constant
times the derivative of that function.

5. Derivative Rule: Trig functions

There are derivative shortcuts for the trig functions as well:

● The derivative of f(x) = sin(x) is f'(x) = cos(x)

● The derivative of f(x) = cos(x) is f'(x) = -sin(x)

With just these two trig function derivative shortcuts, along with the quotient rule (derivative rule
mentioned below in this summary), we can actually come up with the derivative shortcuts for all other
trig functions. Here are these shortcuts:

● The derivative of f(x) = tan(x) is f'(x) = sec2(x)

● The derivative of f(x) = csc(x) is f'(x) = -csc(x)cot(x)
● The derivative of f(x) = sec(x) is f'(x) = sec(x)tan(x)
● The derivative of f(x) = cot(x) is f'(x) = -csc2(x)

6. Derivative Rule: Exponential functions

Recall that the exponential function is f(x) = ax, where a is any positive number (can't be negative or
0), with the special case being f(x) = ex, where e is the Euler's number (approximately 2.718...). Here
are the derivative shortcuts for these exponential functions:

● The derivative of f(x) = ax is f'(x) = axln(a). Basically, you keep the exponential function the same,
then multiply by ln (natural log) of the base a.

● The derivative of f(x) = ex is f'(x) = ex, it doesn't change! We can see that this is just a special
case of the derivative rule for f(x) = ax -- we keep the exponential function the same and multiply
by ln of the base e -- so we get f'(x) = exln(e), but since ln(e) is just 1, we can simplify this to get
f'(x) = ex.

7. Derivative Rule: Product rule & Quotient rule

Now that we know the derivative rules for these power, trig, exponential, and log functions (meaning
we know how to use shortcuts to calculate the derivatives instead of having to evaluate the limit), we
can actually find the derivatives of combinations of these functions using the product rule and the
quotient rule:

● When we have the product of two functions (meaning when we have two functions that are
multiplied together), the product rule tells us that the derivative is going to be the derivative of
the first function times the second function, plus the first function times the derivative of the
second function. So, if the function is f(x) = g(x)h(x), then the derivative is f'(x) = g'(x)h(x) +
g(x)h'(x).

● When we have the quotient of two functions (meaning when we a function divided by another
function), then the quotient rule tells us that the derivative is going to be the derivative of the top
function times the bottom function, minus the top function times the derivative of the bottom
function, all divided by the square of the bottom function. So, if the function is f(x) = g(x)/h(x),
then the derivative is f'(x) = [g'(x)h(x) - g(x)h'(x)]/[h(x)]2.

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3.1 Average Rate of Change & the Secant

Line
3.1.1

Average Rate of Change & the Secant Line

The average rate of change for some function f (x) over the closed interval [x1 , x2 ] is defined as the

slope of the secant line that passes through the points (x1 , f (x1 )) and (x2 , f (x2 )) and it is

expressed as:

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
Average Rate of Change = msec =

x2 − x1

A secant line is a line that passes through at least two points on a curve.

Example

Let h(t) = −4.9t2 + 16t + 28 represent the height, in meters, of a cannon when t ≥ 0 (t is in
seconds).

The average rate of change over each of the following intervals is:

0≤t≤2:

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=

msec
x2 − x1

−4.9(2)2 + 16(2) + 28 − 28
=

2−0

= 20.2 m/s

2≤t≤4:

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=

msec
x2 − x1

(−4.9(4)2 + 16(4) + 28) − (−4.9(2)2 + 16(2) + 28)

4−2

= −13.4 m/s

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3.1.2

Example: Average Rate of Change & the Secant Line

10
The volume of an air balloon is given by V (t) =
. Compute the average rate of change of the
9t + 7

air balloon between t = 0 and the following values of t.

○ t=1
○ t = 0.5
○ t = 0.1
○ t = 0.01
○ t = 0.001

Solution available online

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3.1.3

Practice: Average Rate of Change & the Secant Line

5t
Determine the average rate of the change of the function g(t) = over the interval 1.5 ≤ t ≤ 3.
t−1

Answer

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3.1.4

Practice: Average Rate of Change & the Secant Line

The population, P , of a certain species over time t (in years) is given by the table of values below.

t 0 1 2 3 4
P 10 20 40 80 160

Determine the following average rates of change over the following intervals:

a. 0 ≤t≤1

b. 1 ≤t≤2

c. 2 ≤t≤3

d. 3 ≤t≤4

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3.1.5

Practice: Average Rate of Change & the Secant Line

Germaine and his family purchased a home in 2000 for $400, 000. 15 years later, they sold the house
for $550, 000. What is the average annual rate of change of the value of the home?

A) $36, 689.71/year

B) $9449.71/year

C) $10, 738.98/year

D) $10, 023.04/year

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3.2 Instantaneous Rate of Change & the

Tangent Line
3.2.1

Instantaneous Rate of Change & the Tangent Line

The instantaneous rate of change for some function f (x) at x = a is a tangent line at x = a and
gives the exact rate of change at the value x = a. It can be expressed as:

f (a + h) − f (a)
Approximate Value of Instantaneous Rate of Change (IRC) = minst =

A tangent line is a line that passes through exactly one point on a curve.

Example

The population of a group of rabbits is given by P (t) = 10, 000(1.025)t , where P (t) is the size of
the population at time t in years after the year 2010. Estimate the instantaneous rate of change in the
population of rabbits in the year 2025 using:

1. Centered intervals.
2. The difference quotient with h = 0.001.
3. Using graphing technology.

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3.2.2

Example: Instantaneous Rate of Change & the Tangent Line

The surface area of a cube can be expressed as SA = 6x2 , where x is the side length measured in
centimeters. Estimate the instantaneous rate of change of the surface area of the cube with respect to
the side length using the difference quotient when x = 4.

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3.2.3

Practice: Instantaneous Rate of Change & the Tangent Line

Let f (x) = 9x3 + 4. Determine the instantaneous rate of change for each interval to the nearest
hundredth.

a. 0≤x≤1

b. 0.5 ≤ x ≤ 1

c. 0.9 ≤ x ≤ 1

d. 0.99 ≤ x ≤ 1

e. 1 ≤x≤2

f. 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.5

g. 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.1

h. 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.01

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3.2.4

Practice: Instantaneous Rate of Change & the Tangent Line

A rock is shot into the air and the projectile is modelled by the function d(t) = −9.8t2 + 10t + 150.
Estimate the instantaneous rate of change using the difference quotient at t = 3 for the following
value of h. Round answers to the nearest hundredth when required.

a. h=1

b. h = 0.5

c. h = 0.1

d. h = 0.01

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3.2.5

Practice: Instantaneous Rate of Change & the Tangent Line

An jug of oil spilled over, leaving a pool of oil on the cement. Estimate how fast the area of the pool of
oil is changing using the difference quotient when the radius is 10cm and allowing h = 0.01.

Round to the nearest thousandth. Include units.

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3.3 Derivatives as a Rate of Change

3.3.1

Derivatives as a Rate of Change

Derivative is a fancy word for rate of change. The derivative is of a function tells us how much the
function is changing at any value we wish!

Instantaneous Rate of Change (Slope of the Tangent Line)

The derivative f ′ gives the instantaneous rate of change (geometrically the slope of the tangent line)
of f to the curve at any point where the function is differentiable.

Note: A function is differentiable on an interval only if it is continuous over that interval!

Notation for Derivatives

The derivative of the function f (x)is denoted:

df dy d
f ′ (x) = y ′ = = = f (x )

dx dx dx

If a function is constant, it has no rate of change. Thus the derivative of a constant, c, is zero

d
(c) = 0

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3.3.2

Example: Average Rate of Change

Suppose that a company’s total cost (in dollars) to carry out a production of x units of its product is
x2
given by C(x) = + 10x + 100. Find the average rate of change of the total cost for the first 51
512

units produced.

Solution available online

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3.3.3

f ′ (x) plot for a differentiable function is depicted as below. Find interval(s) for which f (x) is
increasing.

(−3, −1) ∪ (2, 6)

(3, −1) ∪ (2, 6)

(−3, −1) ∪ (6, +∞)

(−3, 1) ∪ (6, +∞)

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3.4 The Limit Definition of a Derivative

3.4.1

The Limit Definition of the Derivative

The derivative is one of the most important and fundamental concepts in calculus. The process of
differentiation tells us the rate of change of a function.

The Derivative (At a Point)

The derivative of a function f (x) at a point x = a, denoted f ′ (a), is

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim

h→0 h

When this limit exists, we say that the function is differentiable at x = a.

Note: The derivative f ′ (a) is also denoted dx

x=a

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3.4.2

Example: Definition of a Derivative

Using the definition of a derivative, find the derivative of f (x) = x.

Solution available online

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3.4.3

Using the definition of the derivative, find the derivative of f (x) = (x + 2)2 + x

Answer

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3.4.4

When is Function Not Differentiable?

f (a + h) − f (a)
Here are the 4 cases where a function is not differentiable (i.e. the limit lim
does

h→0 h
not exist)

1. If a function is discontinuous at a point, then it is not differentiable at that point:

a. Jump discontinuity: the function is not differentiable at the jump

b. Hole (removable discontinuity): the function is not differentiable at the hole

a. Vertical asymptote: the function is not differentiable at the x value where the vertical
asymptote is

2. A function is not differentiable at a corner or cusp: For example, the function f (x) = ∣x∣ is not
differentiable at x = 0

3. A function is not differentiable where there is a vertical tangent line: For example, the function
1
f (x) = x 3 or
3
x is not differentiable at x = 0

4. A function is not differentiable if it oscillates back and forth as it approaches a certain point:
1
For example, the function f (x) = sin ( ) is not differentiable at x = 0 because the f value

x
oscillates back and forth between 1 and -1.

Checking Differentiability at a Point

A common differentiability question you might see on the exam is that they'll give you a piecewise

={
g(x) , x < a
function f (x) and ask if the function is differentiable at the connection point
h(x) , x ≥ a

f (a + h) − f (a)
x = a. For this function to be differentiable, we need to check that lim− =

h→0 h
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim+ . However, this can be very time-consuming and hard to do. Instead, we can

h→0 h
usually check the two following things:

1. Check that lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (a). Most of the time you can just check if g(a) =

x→a− x→a
h(a) (this is a commonly used trick that only works MOST of the time)

2. Check that g ′ (a) = h′ (a). We can use differentiation rules to find g ′ (a) and h′ (a) instead of
having to evaluate a difficult limit. (See the next few sections to learn about these differentiation
rules)

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3.5 Differentiation Laws

3.5.1

Differentiation Laws
Let f and g be two differentiable functions and k be a constant. We have the following rules:

d df dg
1. Sum Rule: (f (x) + g (x)) =

+

dx dx dx

d df dg
2. Difference Rule: (f (x) − g (x)) =

−

dx dx dx

d df
3. Constant Multiple Rule: (kf (x)) = k

dx dx

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3.6 The Power Rule (Derivative of

Polynomials)
3.6.1 The Power Rule

The Power Rule

The first and most common differentiation shortcut is the Power Rule. This rule lets us easily take
derivatives of x to a power without using the limit definition of the derivative.

Power Rule

The derivative of a function of the form f (x) = xn , where n is a real number, is:

f ′ (x) = nxn−1

WIZE TIP

The Power Rule tells us the derivative of any constant function is 0!

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3.6.2

Example: The Power Rule

Find the derivative of the following functions

f (x) = 3x3
Solution available online

1
g (x ) =

x
Solution available online

h(x) = x

Solution available online

2
k(x) =
x3

Solution available online

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3.6.3
d
Find (sin2 x +
π + cos2 x + 57 )

Answer

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3.7 The Product Rule

3.7.1

The Product Rule

Our next differentiation shortcut lets us take derivatives of the product (multiplication) of two
functions.

Product Rule

The derivative of a product y = f (x) g (x), where f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, is:

′
[f (x) g (x)] = f ′ (x) g (x) + f (x) g ′ (x)

WIZE TIP

A nice way to remember the product rule is: "the derivative of the 1st times the 2nd, plus the
2nd times the derivative of the 1st".

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3.7.2

Example: The Product Rule

Find the following derivative

d
dx [x2 (x + 7)]

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3.7.3

Example: The Product Rule

Find the following derivative using the product rule

d (x2 + 1)
dx x2

Solution available online

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3.7.4

Find the derivative of y = xf (x) at x = 1 if f (1) = 2 and f ′ (1) = 3

Answer

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3.8 The Quotient Rule

3.8.1

The Quotient Rule

Our next differentiation shortcut lets us take derivatives of the quotient (division) of two functions.

Quotient Rule

f (x)
The derivative of a quotient , where f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions and g(x) =
 0,
g(x)
is:

′
f (x ) f ′ (x ) g (x ) − f (x ) g ′ (x )
[ ] = 2
g (x ) [g (x)]

WIZE TIP

A nice way to remember the Quotient Rule is: "low d hi, minus hi d low, over low squared".

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3.8.2

Example: The Quotient Rule

Find the following derivative
3x
[ ]
d
dx x − 2

Solution available online

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3.8.3
1 + x g (x ) ′
Suppose g (x) is differentiable, f (x ) = 2
, f (1) = 2, g (1) = 1, what is g ′ (1)?

−5

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3.9 Derivatives of Trig Functions

3.9.1

Derivatives of Trig Functions

We may often want to take derivatives involving the trigonometric functions. Rather than deriving
them each time, it's much easier to simply remember the following derivatives.

Trig Derivatives

The derivatives of the six trigonometric functions are:

(sin x)′ = cos x

(cos x)′ = − sin x

(tan x)′ = sec2 x

(sec x)′ = sec x tan x

(cot x)′ = − csc2 x (csc x)′ = − csc x cot x

WIZE TIP

Notice how all the derivatives of "CO Functions" have a minus sign.

WIZE CONCEPT

The Product, Quotient, and Chain Rules still apply for Trig Derivatives!

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3.9.2

Example: Trig Derivatives

d 2
Find (x sin x).

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3.9.3

Example: Trig Derivatives

1 + cos x
Find the derivative of f (x) =
x − sin x

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3.9.4

Find the derivative of

f (θ) = (sin θ − cos θ) sec θ

sin2 θ

cos2 θ

sec2 θ

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3.9.5

Find y (23) , the 23rd derivatives, given y = sin x.

− sin x

sin x

− cos x

cos x

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3.10 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

3.10.1

Derivatives of Exponential Functions

The Derivative of The Exponential Function

The derivative of the exponential function f (x) = ex is:

(ex )′ = ex

WIZE TIP

It is the only function whose derivative is itself!

The Derivative of General Exponential Functions

For a given b > 0, the derivative of the exponential function bx is:

(bx )′ = bx ln b

Note: Notice if we let b = e we get the previous formula since ln e = 1.

WIZE CONCEPT

The Product, Quotient, and Chain Rules still apply for Exponential Derivatives!

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3.10.2

Example: Exponential Derivatives

3ex
Given y = find y ′ (x).

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3.11 Exam-Like Practice Questions

3.11.1

Using the definition of derivative, find f′(x) for f(x) = x2 − 1

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim

h→0 h

[(x + h)2 − 1] − [x2 − 1]

= lim

h→0 h
=

Answer

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3.11.2

Find the derivative of each function

x3 +π
a) y = cos (3) b) y= 4

c) y = xe + e x

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3.11.3

Practice Question: Finding a Derivative

Find the derivative of f (x ) = x 3 × x.

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3.11.4

Using the definition of a derivative, find the derivative of

f (x) = x

1
x

2 x

1
2 x

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3.11.5

Find the derivative of the following function:

y = sin( x)

sin( x)

2 x

cos( x)

2 x

sin( x)

cos( x)

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3.11.6

Find the derivative of the following function:

y = esin( x)

esin( x)

cos( x)

x) cos( x)
esin(

2 x

esin( x) cos(

x) x

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3.11.7

Find the derivative of the following functions at the given point using quotient rule.

*You may also need to use other derivative rules you've learned so far.

Part 1
2x5 − 4x
Derivative of y = 3
, at x = 0.
x2 )

(4 −

Enter the exact value of the derivative at the point x =0

Find the derivative of the following functions at the given point using quotient rule.

*You may also need to use other derivative rules you've learned so far.

Part 2
4
(3x2 −1) (1−x)2
Derivative of y = (x3 −2x+2)

, at x = 1.

Enter the exact value of the derivative at the point x =1

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3.11.8

x2 + 3x4/3 + 1
Find the derivative of f (x) =
x2 + 1

1 7
4x 3 − 2x 3

(x2 + 1)
2
1+ 1

7 1
4x3 +4x+10x 3 +4x 3

(x2 +1)2

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3.11.9

Practice: Power of a Function Rule

4
Find the derivative of f (x) = ( x1 + 2x3 ) at the point x = 1

Enter the exact value. f ′ (1) =

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3.11.10

Find the derivative of the following:

2
yex+y = x2

2
2x+yex+y
y′ = x+y 2
−2y 2 ex+y2

2
2x−yex+y
y′ = 2 2
ex+y −2y 2 ex+y

2
2x+yex+y
y′ = x+y 2
+2y 2 ex+y2

2
2x−yex+y
y′ = x+y 2
+2y 2 ex+y2

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3.11.11

Given x2 + y = y 2 − 4, find y ′ .

y' =

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3.11.12

Practice: Second Derivative

Find the second derivative of y = 2 + x3 at x = 1

Enter the exact value of the second derivative at x =1

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3.11.13
(x−3)9 xx ln x
Find the derivative of y= x−9 .

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3.11.14

If f (x) =x x

then find f ′ (4).

4 ln 4 + 4

4 ln 4 + 8

4 ln 4 + 2

2 ln 4 + 2

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3.11.15

Find the derivative of g(x) = cos−1 (sin−1 x).

−1
(1−(sin−1 x)2 )(1−x2 )

2
−1−x
(1−(sin−1 x)2 )

−sinx
(1−(sin−1 x)2 )

−1
(1−(x)2 )(1−x2 )

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3.11.16

Is there any point on the graph y = x2+ + 3x + 8 such that the tangent line is parallel to the line with
the equation y = 7x + 104 ?

( 2,18 )

( 4,20 )

( 3,15 )

( 6,22 )

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3.11.17

Find the equation of tangent line to y = 2x + 3 at x=3.

Answer

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3.11.18
1
Find all value(s) of x on the graph of f (x ) = x
+ 16x where the tangent line is horizontal

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3.11.19

Suppose g (x) is differentiable, f (x) = x2 g (x). Given that f ′ (3) = 30, f ′′ (3) =
19, g (3) = 2, what is g ′ (3) and g ′′ (3)?

g ′ (3) =

g ′′ (3) =

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3.11.20

1+x g (x)
Suppose g (x) is differentiable, f (x) = x2 , f ′ (1) = 2, g (1) = 1, what is
g ′ (1 )?

a. 0

b. 1

c. 5

d. -5

e. None of the above

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3.11.21

Differentiate f (x) = (x3/2 ) (2x4 − 5x2 − x−1 ) (xe − π 3.5 )

11 7 1
2x 2 +e − 5x 2 +e − x 2 +e

3 12 1
2
x

(8x3 − 10x + x2
) (exe−1 )

35 5 1 1
(11x 2 − x 2 − x− 2 ) (xe − π 3.5 ) + (2x 2 − 5 2 − x 2 ) (exe−1 )
9
11
7
1

2 2

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3.11.22

Practice: Normal Line

Find the equation of the normal line to the curve y = 2x + x at the point where the normal line has

a slope of − 13 .

Enter the equation of the normal line in the form y = mx + b

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 17 practice problems on [Link]

4. Differentiation 2:
Composite, Implicit, &
Inverse Functions (Exam
Weighting: 4-7%)
4.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 3: Differentiation 2: Composite,

Implicit, & Inverse Functions
Now that we've learned the meaning of derivatives and its connection to rates of change, and have
some derivative rules (or shortcuts) in our back pocket, let's continue to explore the harder derivative
concepts and learn more derivative shortcuts

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following concepts and should be able to apply
them to real-world application problems:

1. Derivative Rule: Chain rule

Remember that when you have a product or quotient of functions (meaning when you have two or
more functions that are multiplied or divided), we need to use the product rule or quotient rule to find
the derivative. What if we have a composite of functions, meaning when we have a function wrapped
inside another function? We need to use something called the chain rule to find the derivative.

The chain rule tells us that the derivative of f(x) = g(h(x)) is f'(x) = g'(h(x))*h'(x), basically we find the
derivative of the outside function, leaving the inside function the same, then multiply by the derivative
of the inside function. For example, if f(x) = (3sin(x) + x3)5, we see that the function 3sin(x) + x3 is
wrapped inside a power of 5. So, the inside function is 3sin(x) + x3 and the outside function is (...)5.

Using the chain rule, we need to find the derivative of the outside function, which gives us 5(...)4, while
leaving the inside ... function the same 3sin(x) + x3. Then we multiply this by the derivative of the
inside function, which gives us 3cos(x) + 3x2. So, the derivative is f'(x) = 5(3sin(x) + x3)5*(3cos(x) +
3x2).

WATCH OUT!

A common mistake is that students find the derivative of the outside function, while replacing the
inside function with the derivative of the inside function. So, it would be wrong to say that the
derivative of f(x) = (3sin(x) + x3)5 is f'(x) = 5(3cos(x) + 3x2)4

2. Derivative technique: Implicit differentiation

So far, we've learned how to use derivative rules to find the derivative of different function types (like
power, constant, trig, exponential, and log functions). We also learned how to use the product,
quotient, and chain rule to find the derivative of combinations of these function types. Next, we will
learn how to use a derivative technique called implicit differentiation to find the derivative of a function
when it is expressed implicitly, meaning the function is not given explicitly as f(x) = ..., instead you
might have an equation that involves the function f(x), for example 5x3 + [f(x)]4 = f(x)*ex.

How implicit differentiation works is we can find the derivative of that entire equation from left to
right, one term at a time. Just pretend that f(x) or y is like an x variable and apply the derivative rules
to find the derivative, but whenever you have to find the derivative of f(x) or y, think of it as using the
chain rule, so we have to end up
multiplying by f'(x) or dy/dx. After you find the derivative of all the terms, we just have to try and solve
for f'(x) or dy/dx in our equation to state the answer for our derivative.

Let's use the example 5x3 + [f(x)]4 = f(x)*ex, where we want to find the derivative f'(x). Let's find the
derivative of each term:

● The derivative of 5x3 is 5(3x2), which simplifies to 15x2

● To find the derivative of [f(x)]4, we think of using the chain rule. The outside function is [...]3 and
the inside function is f(x). So, using the chain rule, we need to find the derivative of the outside
function while keeping the inside function the same, we get is 4[f(x)]3, then we need to multiply
by the derivative of the inside function f(x) which is f'(x). So, we get that the derivative of this
term is 4[f(x)]3f'(x). Observe how when we want to find the derivative of a term involving f(x), we
end up multiplying by f'(x).

● To find the derivative of f(x)*ex, we need to use the product rule because we have a product of
two functions f(x) and ex. Recall that the product rule tells us to find the derivative of the first
function (which is f'(x) ), multiply by the second function (which is ex), then add the first function
(which is f(x) ) times the derivative of the second function (which is ex). So the derivative of this
term becomes f'(x)*ex + f(x)*ex.

Finally, we can put this all together. So, using implicit differentiation technique, we see that the
derivative of this entire equation is 15x2 + 4[f(x)]3f'(x) = f'(x)*ex+f(x)*ex. Now we want to solve for f'(x)
by grouping like terms with f'(x) on the left and moving all other terms to the right. In the end, we get
that f'(x) = [f(x)*ex - 15x2]/[4[f(x)]3 - ex].

3. Derivative technique: Derivative of inverse functions

The next derivative technique helps us find the derivative of inverse functions without first having to
find what the inverse function is. For example, if you are given the function f(x) and are asked to find
the derivative of the inverse function f-1(x), of course we can always try to find what the inverse
function f-1(x) is, then find the derivative of that using our derivative rules. But sometimes it's not easy
or not even possible to come up with the expression for the inverse function f-1(x). So, we use this
formula to find the derivative of the inverse: [f-1(x)]' = 1/f'[f-1(x)], meaning that the derivative of the
inverse function is 1 divided by the derivative of the regular function evaluated at the inverse function.
This sounds more complicated than it is, let's look at an example.

If f(x) = x4-1 and we want to find (f-1)'(15), meaning the derivative of the inverse function evaluated at
15, we don't have to first find the inverse of x4-1, we can use the derivative of inverse function
technique. Using the formula, we see that (f-1)'(15) = 1/f'[f-1(15)], let's find each of these components:

● Using power rule, we see that f'(x) = 4x3

● Since f(2) = 15, we see that f-1(15) = 2. Remember that's how inverses work, if you know that
f(x) = y, then f-1(y) = x

So, (f-1)'(15) = 1/4(2)3, which simplifies to 1/32.

4. Derivative Rule: Logarithmic functions

Recall that the logarithmic function is f(x) = loga(x), where a is any positive number (can't be negative
or 0), with the special case being the natural log f(x) = loge(x), which can be rewritten as f(x) = ln(x).
Here are the derivative shortcuts for these logarithmic functions:

● The derivative of f(x) = loga(x) is f'(x) = (1/x)ln(a). Basically, you take the reciprocal of the
argument of the log function ("what you are logging"), then multiply by ln of the base (sounds
similar to the exponential function shortcut huh).

● The derivative of f(x) = ln(x) is f'(x) = 1/x, it's just the reciprocal of the argument of the log
function. We can see that this is just a special case of the derivative rule for f(x) = loga(x) -- we
take the reciprocal of the argument of the log function and multiply by ln of the base e -- so we
get f'(x) = (1/x)ln(e), but since ln(e) is just 1, we can simplify this to get f'(x) = 1/x.

5. Derivative Rule: Inverse trig functions

Now that we've learned the derivative of inverse functions technique, we can come up with derivative
rules (or shortcuts) for the common inverse trig functions! Here's the list:

● The derivative of the inverse of sin(x): If f(x) = arcsin(x) or sin-1(x), then f ′ (x) 1
= 1−x2

● The derivative of the inverse of cos(x): If f(x) = arccos(x) or cos-1(x), then f ′ (x) =− 1
1−x2

● The derivative of the inverse of tan(x): If f(x) = arctan(x) or tan-1(x), then f ′ (x) 1
= 1+x2

● The derivative of the inverse of csc(x): If f(x) = arccsc(x) or csc-1(x), then f ′ (x) = − 1
∣x∣ x2 −1

● The derivative of the inverse of sec(x): If f(x) = arcsec(x) or sec-1(x), then f ′ (x) = ∣x∣ 1x2 −1

′ 1
● The derivative of the inverse of cot(x): If f(x) = arccot(x) or cot-1(x), then f (x) = − 1+x 2

The derivatives of last 3 inverse reciprocal trig functions don't commonly appear in questions, I've only
included them here to show you that the derivative rules (shortcuts) exists because you might see
them if you take college/university level calculus.

6. Derivative technique: Higher order derivatives

That's a wrap on all derivative rules and shortcuts! However, we don't just want to know how to find
the derivative of a function once, sometimes the questions will ask us to find higher order derivatives
like the second derivative f''(x), the third derivative f'''(x), etc. This just means that we have to keep
taking the derivative of the derivative a few more times.

For example, if f(x) = x3, then the first derivative is f'(x) = 3x2. To find the second derivative, we just
take the derivative one more time to get f''(x) = 3(2x) = 6x. To find the third derivative, we take the
derivative one more time to get f'''(x) = 6. Now, because the derivative of any constant number is just
0, the fourth, fifth, sixth derivative and up will all just be 0.

WIZE TIP

It's not likely that you'll see anything higher than a second derivative f''(x) on the AP calculus
exam, but just in case, let's go through the notation of how to write out higher order derivatives:
dy
● First derivative is f'(x) or dx

2
● Second derivative is f''(x) or d y2
dx

3
● Third derivative is f'''(x) or d y3
dx

4
● Fourth derivative is f(iv)(x) or f(4)(x) or d y4
dx

5
● Fifth derivative is f(v)(x) or f(5)(x) or d y5
dx

● ...and so on

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4.1 The Chain Rule

4.1.1

The Chain Rule

This differentiation shortcut lets us take the derivative of composed functions. (functions inside
functions)

The Chain Rule

The derivative of a composition of two differentiable functions f (y) and g(x) (so that the
composition f (g(x))is well defined), is

[f (g(x))]′ = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x)

WIZE TIP

A nice way to remember the Chain Rule is: "The derivative of the outside (keep the inside)
times the derivative of the inside".

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4.1.2

Example: The Chain Rule

Find the derivative of the function y = (2x − 5)10

Solution available online

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4.1.3

Example: Trig Derivatives

Find the derivative of the following function

y = sin x

Solution available online

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4.1.4

Example: Exponential Derivatives

dy x2
Find given y = 2 .

Solution available online

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4.1.5

Find the derivative of the following function.

3
2x + 1
f (x) = ( 2 )
x +1

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4.1.6

Find the derivative of the following function

y = esin x

esin( x) cos(

x) cos( x)
esin(

2 x

esin( x) cos(

x) x

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4.2 Implicit Differentiation

4.2.1

Implicit Differentiation
We call a traditional function y = f (x) explicit since y is in terms of x. However, even if y cannot be
written explicitly in terms of x, we can still compute its derivative by differentiating both sides of the
equation.

WATCH OUT!

You must use implicit differentiation to take the derivative of equations that cannot be solved
for y explicitly (or would be very challenging to do so).

Procedure for Implicit Differentiation

1. Differentiate on both sides of the equation by considering y as a function of x.

2. Use the chain rule for all y dependent terms.
3. Isolate dy
. (or y ′ depending on your preferred notation)

WIZE TIP

dy
Whenever you take the derivative of a y , you must multiply the term by (or y ′ depending

dx
on your notation) due to the chain rule.

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4.2.2

Example: Implicit Differentiation

dy
Find for the following equation:

y cos x = x2 + cos y

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4.2.3

Example: Implicit Differentiation (with 2nd Derivatives)

d2 y y2
Find the second derivative, for the the implicit function: = 10
dx2

Solution available online

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4.2.4
dy
Find for the following equation:

dx
y
tan ( ) = x

dy x2 sin2 xy + y
=

dx x

dy x2 cos2 xy + y
=

dx x

dy x2 cos2 xy + y
=−

dx x

dy x2 cos2 xy + x
=

dx y

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4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Functions

4.3.1

Derivatives of Inverse Functions

Letf (x) be a differentiable function. If f ′ (f −1 (a)) = 0 and is defined, then f −1 (x)is differentiable

at x = a, and

1
(f −1 )′ (a) =
f ′ (f −1 (a))

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4.3.2

Example: Derivatives of Inverses

Let f (x) = x4 − x + 3. Find (f −1 )′ (17).Hint f −1 (17) = 2.

Solution available online

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4.3.3

Determine the derivative of arccos x using the differentiation rule for inverse functions:

d 1
dx [f −1 (x)] =
f ′ (f −1 (x))

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4.4 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

4.4.1

Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

The Derivative of the Natural Log Function

The derivative of the natural logarithm function f (x) = ln xis

1
(ln x)′ =

The Derivative of General Log Functions

For a given b > 0 and b =

 1, the derivative of the logarithmic function logb x is:

1
(logb x)′ =
x ln b

WIZE CONCEPT

The Product, Quotient, and Chain Rules still apply for Log Derivatives!

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4.4.2

Example: Log Derivatives

Find the derivative of y = ln(2x2 )

Solution available online

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4.4.3

Example: Log Derivatives

dy
Find for f (x) = log2 (x2 + 2xex )

Solution available online

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4.4.4
dy
Find for y = 5 log5 (log2 t).

dt
5
y′ =
t ln t ln 5

y ′ = 5t ln t ln 5

5
y′ =
ln t ln 5
1
y′ =
ln t ln 5

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4.4.5

Find the derivative of y = log3 (7xln 2 )

ln 2
x ln 3

1
7xln 2 ln 3

ln 2
xln 2+1 ln 3

7 ln 3
x ln 2

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4.5 Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions

4.5.1

Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions

The derivatives of the six inverse trigonometric functions are:

1 −1
(arcsin(x))′ = (arccos(x))′ =
1 − x2 1 − x2

1 1
(arctan(x))′ = (arcsec(x))′ =
1 + x2 ∣x∣ x2 − 1

−1 −1
(arcCot(x))′ = (arcCsc(x))′ =
1 + x2 ∣x∣ x2 − 1

WIZE TIP

Notice how all the derivatives of "CO Functions" have a minus sign.

WIZE CONCEPT

The Product, Quotient, and Chain Rules still apply for Inverse Trig Derivatives!

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4.5.2

Example: Inverse Trig Derivative

Find the derivative of f (x) = arcsin(3x2 ).

Solution available online

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4.5.3

(arccos x)2
Find the derivative of f (x) =
sec x

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4.6 Bonus: Logarithmic Differentiation

(Important technique in calculus but
not usually covered in AP Calculus AB
or BC)
4.6.1

Logarithmic Differentiation
Consider a function of the form y = g(x)f (x) . To compute the derivative of this function, it is useful
(and sometimes necessary) to first take the logarithm on both sides of the equation and then
compute the derivative. This process is called logarithmic differentiation.

Procedure for Logarithmic Differentiation

1. Take the natural logarithm on both sides of the equation: ln y = ln (g (x)f (x) )

2. Simplify using log rules

3. Differentiate Implicitly

4. Solve

5. Simplify

6. Substitute given information (if asked to)

WIZE TIP

You can use Logarithmic Differentiation on derivatives of complex products or quotients by

using properties of logarithms.

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4.6.2

Example: Logarithmic Differentiation

Find the derivative of f (x) = xx .

Solution available online

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4.6.3

Find the derivative of f (x) = sin xcos x .

− sin x ln sin x + cos x cot x

sin xcos x (sin x ln sin x + cos x)

sin xcos x (sin x ln sin x + cos x cot x)

cos2 x
sin xcos x (− sin x ln sin x + )
sin x

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4.7 Higher Order Derivatives

4.7.1

Higher Order Derivatives

To get the second derivative, differentiate the first derivative. Then the third is the derivative of the
second and so on.

The second derivative is denoted:

d2 f d2 y d2
( )
d df
f ′′ (x) = y ′′ = = = f ( x ) =
dx2 dx2 dx2

dx dx

The nth derivative is denoted:

n dn f
f (x) =
dxn

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4.7.2

Example: Higher Order Derivatives

Find f ′ (π ) + f ′′ (π ) if f (x) = x cos x − sin x.

Solution available online

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4.7.3

Find the third derivative of f (x) = x2 + 16 x.

Answer

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4.7.4

If f (x) = x10 find f (9) (x).

(i.e. the 9th derivative)

10! x

210 x

9! x2

29 x2

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 11 practice problems on [Link]

5. Applications of
Differentiation:
Contextual (Exam
Weighting: 6-9%)
5.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 4: Contextual Applications of

Differentiation
Now that we know how to more easily calculate the derivative of a function or the derivative of a
function at a point, we're going to use derivatives to solve application problems.

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following applications of derivatives:

1. Using derivatives to solve tangent and normal line problems

2. Using derivatives to solve straight-line motion problems involving position, velocity, and acceleration

3. Interpret and solve application word problems involving rates of change

4, Solving related rates problems

5. Approximate function values using linearization

6. Using L'Hospital's rule to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms

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5.1 Tangent Lines

5.1.1

Tangent Lines
The derivative of a functions represents the instantaneous rate of change at a point. This rate of
change is the same as the slope of the tangent line at a point!

Tangent Lines

A tangent line to f (x) at x = a is a line that only just touches f (x) and is locally parallel to f (x) at
x = a.
Locally parallel means that at x = a, f (x) and its tangent line have the same slope.

Equation of Tangent Lines

The equation of the tangent line of f (x)at x = a is

y = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

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5.1.2

Example: Tangent Lines

Find the tangent lines to the function y = x3 with slope 6.

Solution available online

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5.1.3

Find the equation to the tangent line to y = 3x2 + 4x − 1 at x = −2.

Answer

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5.2 Normal Lines

5.2.1

Normal Lines
Since the derivative can give us the tangent line to a curve, it can also tell us the line perpendicular to
the tangent line. The line perpendicular to the tangent line is called the Normal Line.

WIZE CONCEPT

The equation of the tangent line is ytangent = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a).

Normal Lines

Also, recall that two perpendicular lines with slopes mtangent and mnormal satisfy

mtangent × mnormal = −1

Then, the equation of the line normal to f (x) at x = a is

1
ynormal = f (a) − (x − a)
f ′ (a)

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5.2.2

Example: Normal Lines

Find the normal line to the graph f (x ) = x at x = 9.

Solution available online

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5.2.3

Find the equation of the normal line to f (x) = ln x at the point (e, 1)

Note: This questions requires knowledge of derivatives of logarithms

Your answer should include e

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5.3 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

5.3.1

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Since derivatives are rates of change, there is a natural relationship between position, velocity, and
acceleration. Velocity is change in position while acceleration is change in velocity.

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Let

● s (t)denote the position of a particle at time t

● v (t)denote the velocity of a particle at time t
● a (t)denote the acceleration of a particle at time t

then

s ′ (t ) = v (t )

and

s′′ (t) = v ′ (t) = a (t)

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5.3.2

Example: Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

An object is moving and its position is governed by this equation x(t) = 5t2 − 3t + 1.

What is the average velocity in time interval [0,2] seconds? Find the velocity at t = 3.

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5.3.3

Find velocity and acceleration at t = 2 for x(t) = 6t3 + 3t2 − 3.

Velocity answer is in m/s (only type a number)

Acceleration is in m/s^2 (only type a number)

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5.4 Related Rates

5.4.1

Related Rates
A related rates problem involves quantities which vary with time and equations linking these
quantities. Typically, the value of these quantities are given at a certain time as well as their rates of
change. Often, one rate is missing and has to be found.

Procedure for Solving Related Rates

1. Draw a picture.
2. Identify the meaningful variables and constants with their respective units (put them on the
picture if applicable).
3. Identify the known and unknown rates of change.
4. Find an equation linking the variables found in 2.
5. Use implicit differentiation to differentiate both sides of the equation found in 4.
6. Substitute the known quantities and rates of change in the equation found in 5.
7. Solve 6 for the desired rate of change and answer the question.

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5.4.2

Example: Related Rates

A 10 ft ladder is resting against a wall with the base of the ladder initially 5 ft from the wall. If the
bottom gets pushed towards the wall at a constant rate of 0.5 ft/s, how fast is the top of the ladder
moving up the wall after 8 seconds?

Solution available online

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5.4.3

Example: Related Rates

If a tree trunk adds 1/4 of an feet to its diameter and 1 foot to its height each year, how rapidly is its
volume changing when its diameter is 3 feet and its height is 50 feet (assume that the tree trunk is a
circular cylinder).

Solution available online

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5.4.4

The radius r of a pizza plate increases at a rate of .02 cm/min placed in an oven. At what rate is the
area of the plate increasing when r = 40 cm?

cm2
1600π min

cm2
80π min

cm2
0.08 min

8π cm2
5 min

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5.4.5

A rocket rising straight up from a level field by an observer 600 feet from the point of launch. At the
moment the observer's angle of elevation is π4 , the angle is increasings at a rate of .1 rads/minute.

How fast is the rocket rising at that moment?

Enter your answer in ft/min rounded to 2 decimal places if necessary (do not include units)

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5.4.6

A man running straight at a rate of 10 ft/sec along a level street passes under a vertically rising
balloon when it is 50 feet high. Assuming that the balloon is rising at a constant rate of 1.5 ft/sec, how
fast is the distance between the balloon and the man increasing 2 seconds later?

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5.5 Linearization (Linear Approximation)

5.5.1

Linearization
Tangent Lines can give us great approximations to functions near a point. The process of using this
linear approximation is called Linearization.

Linearization

The linearization or linear approximation, of the functionf (x) about x = a is the functionL (x)
defined by

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

The value of a is sometimes called the center or the anchor point of the approximation.

Note: The closer the input of L(x) is to a , the better the approximation of f (x) will be.

Over/Under Estimates

If the function is concave up (upward U shaped in the neighborhood of the approximation) the
approximation is an underestimate of the actual value.

If the function is concave down (downward U shaped in the neighborhood of the approximation) the
approximation is an overestimate of the actual value.

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5.5.2

Example: Linearization
Approximate the square root of 26 without using a calculator.

Solution available online

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5.5.3

Use a linear approximation to estimate 8.012/3

1
2+
300

1
4−
300

1
4+
300

1
2−
300

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5.5.4

Using a linear approximation, estimate g(1.1), given that g(x) = f (x2 + 1) and f (2) = f ′ (2) = 1

Answer

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5.6 L’Hopital’s Rule & Indeterminate Forms

5.6.1

L’Hopital’s Rule (LHR)

0
Derivatives can actually help us solve limit problems. When we obtain the indeterminate forms or
0

±∞
we can try to use L’Hopital’s Rule.
±∞

L’Hopital’s Rule

Consider two differentiable functions f (x) and g(x) on an open interval containing the number a (a
could be infinite). If either f (a) = g(a) = 0 or lim f (x) = lim g(x) = ±∞. Then

x→a x→a

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→a g (x)

x→a g(x)

provided the limit exists.

Note: LHR also applied to one-sided limits, i.e. when x → a± .

WATCH OUT!

You may have to apply L’Hopital’s Rule multiple times in the same limit to find a solution!

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5.6.2

Example: L’Hopital’s Rule

2 sin x − sin 2x
Find lim
x→0 2ex − 2 − x2

Solution available online

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5.6.3
cot x
Find lim+ .
ln x2

x→0

Answer

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5.7 Solving General Indeterminate Forms

5.7.1

Solving General Indeterminate Forms

Using only L'Hoptial's Rule is not enough to solve every type of limit. Depending on the situation, we
may have to perform some algebra to effectively apply L'Hoptial's Rule.

Techniques to Solve General Indeterminate Forms

0 ±∞
1. Limits of the form and can be solved using L'Hopital's Rule, factoring the highest power
0 ±∞

at the numerator and denominator or cancelling common factors.

g(x) f (x)
2. Limits of the form 0 ⋅ ∞ can be written as f (x)g(x) = 1

= 1 and going back to Case

f (x) g(x)

3. Limits of the form 00 , ∞0 or 1∞ can be reduced to Case 2 by taking the natural logarithms on

both sides.

4. Limits of the form ∞ − ∞ can be solved by either putting on the same denominator, by

factoring or by multiplying by the conjugate, and then going back to Case 1.

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5.7.2

Example: Solving General Indeterminate Forms

Find lim+ xa ln x, where a > 0

x→0

Solution available online

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5.7.3

Evaluate lim+ cos xcot x .

x→0

Answer

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5.7.4

Evaluate lim [ x2 + 1 − x]

x→∞

Answer

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5.8 Exam-Like Practice Questions

5.8.1
An object travels on a path that draws out a square which is 20 meters on a side. The object starts at
corner A, and moves towards corner B. When it is halfway to corner B with a speed of 10 meters per
second, at what rate is the object’s distance from corner C (the corner directly opposite corner A)
changing? Do not simplify your answer.

−100
500

100
500

−10
500

10
500

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5.8.2

Answer

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5.8.3

Practice Question: Related Rates

A plane flies 3 km over a student, moving parallel to the ground at 2km/s. How fast is its distance from
the student changing when it has travelled 4 km?

Answer

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5.8.4

Consider the function

f (x) = sin(x)

a) Find the linear approximation of the function f (x) near x =0.

b) Use the linear approximation from part a) to approximate the value of sin(0.1) .

c) The approximation sin(x) ≈ x is called the small angle approximation in physics. Is this name
appropriate? Explain why in a sentence or two.

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5.8.5
π
The linear approximation L(x) of the function f (x) = cos x at x = 3
is

3
2

− 12 (x − π3 )

1 3
− 2 (x − π3 )

3
2

+ 12 (x − π3 )

1 3
+ 2 (x − π3 )

cos x − (sin x)(x − π/3)

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5.8.6

Practice Question
1
Find the Taylor series representation for f (x) = 1+2x
about
c = −2. Then, state the radius of
convergence.

∞
2n
f (x) = −∑ n+1 (x + 2)n
3

n=0
1
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n
f (x) = −∑ n+1 (x + 2)n
3

n=0
3
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n
f (x) = ∑ (x + 2)n
3n

n=0
1
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n
f (x) = ∑ n (x + 2)n
3

n=0
3
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n + 1
f (x) = −∑ n+1 (x + 2)n
3

n=0
Radius of convergence is R = 12

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5.8.7

Find the 2nd degree Taylor polynomial of f (x) = e2x centered at a = ln 3.

(i.e. find the first 3 terms (i.e.n = 0, 1, 2) of the Taylor polynomial of f (x) with a = ln 3)

2
(x−ln 3)
3 + (x − ln 3) +

2
6(x−ln 3)
3 + 6 (x − ln 3) +

2
3 + 6 (x − ln 3) + 6 (x − ln 3)

2 3
(x−ln 3) (x−ln 3)
(x − ln 3) + +

2! 3!

2 3
6(x−ln 3) 24(x−ln 3)
6 (x − ln 3) + +

2! 3!

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5.8.8

Consider f (x) = 1 + x.

a) Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree 3 of f (x) = 1 + x.

b) Provide an upper bound on the error of using T3 (x) to approximate f (x) on [0, 0.1].

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5.8.9

Which of the following points on the following function should you NOT use in order to use Newton's
Method?

f (x) = x3 − 2x + 2

Choose all that apply.

2
a) 3

b) −2

2
c) − 3

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5.8.10
3
Use 1 iteration of Newton's method to approximate 9 where the initial position is x=2

1
2− 9

1
2+ 9

1
2− 12

1
2+ 12

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5.8.11

Evaluate the limit L = lim+ xsin x .

x→0

1/2

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5.8.12

🌶️ TOUGH! Evaluate the limit L = lim x→∞

ln(e2x + x)

x .

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5.8.13
x2 + x
Evaluate the following limit lim 2x .
x→∞ e + 1

Answer

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🦊 TRICKY! Find the value of the limit lim

5.8.14
3x
2e

x→0

Answer

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5.8.15

Evaluate the limit lim+ x3/2 ln x.

x→0

Answer

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5.8.16
1
Evaluate the following limit lim x sin ( ).
x2

x→∞

Answer

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5.8.17

Evaluate

x2 − 9
lim
x− 3

x→3

6 3

12 3

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5.8.18

Evaluate

lim x2 − 10x − x2

x→∞

−∞

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5.8.19

True or False? The function f (x) = ecos x + 2xx has an absolute maximum and an absolute
minimum in the interval [0.1]

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5.8.20

The function f (x) = x12 has no horizontal tangent lines on the interval [−1, 1] , even though

f (−1) = f (1). Why doesn't this contradict Rolle's Theorem?

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5.8.21

Show that the equation cos2 (x) = 2x has exactly one solution on R.

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5.8.22

Why doesn't the function f (x) = ∣x∣on the interval [−1, 1]violate the Mean Value Theorem?
f (1) − f (−1)
In other words, how is it that = 0, but there does not exist a value of csuch that
1 − (−1)

f ′ (c) = 0?

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5.8.23

For the function g(x) = (x + 1)3 on [−1, 1], find the number c guaranteed by the Mean Value
Theorem.

2
3

2
−1
3

2
− −1
3

2
+1
3

None of the above

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5.8.24

Q. An object is moving. Its position is given by x(t) = 2t3 − t. Find time t at which its speed is equal
to the average speed over the interval [0, 1].

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5.8.25

Suppose that f is a differentiable function such that f ′ (x) ≥ 3 for all x. If f (2) = 3, what is the
minimum possible value of f (4)?

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5.8.26
1
Find the intervals on which the function f (x) =− is increasing or decreasing.
x+1

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5.8.27

Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 9x + 1 is increasing or decreasing.

Increasing: (−∞, −3) ∪ (1, ∞); Decreasing: (−3, 1)

Increasing: (−3, 1); Decreasing: (−∞, −3) ∪ (1, ∞)

Increasing: (−3, 1); Decreasing: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

Increasing: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 1) ∪ (1, ∞); Decreasing: (−3, 1)

Increasing: (−∞, −3); Decreasing: (1, ∞)

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5.8.28

Find the value(s) of c such that f (x) = cx3 − 3 (c + 1) x has

Part 1
no critical points.

c < −1

c = −1

−1 < c ≤ 0

−1 < c < 0

−1 ≤ c ≤ 0

Find the value(s) of c such that f (x) = cx3 − 3 (c + 1) x has

Part 2
one critical point.

c < −1

c = −1

−1 < c ≤ 0

c < −1 or c > 0

−1 ≤ c ≤ 0

Find the value(s) of c such that f (x) = cx3 − 3 (c + 1) x has

Part 3
two critical points.

c < −1

c = −1

c > −1

c < −1 or c > 0

−1 ≤ c ≤ 0

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5.8.29

Find all the critical points of the function

f (x) = ln (x2 + 4x + 14)

Answer

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5.8.30

2x
Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = on the interval [0, 2].
x2 + 1

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5.8.31

Find and classify all local and absolute extrema of f (x) = sin x cos x on the interval [0, 2π ].

x= π
4
and x = 5π
4
are local and absolute maximums;

3π 7π
x= 4
and
x = 4
are local and absolute minimums

x = π4 is the only absolute maximum;

x = 3π4
is a local maximum;

3π
x = 4 is the only absolute minimum;

x = 7π4
is a local minimum

3π
x= 4
and x = 7π

4
are local and absolute maximums;

5π
x= π
4
and x = 4 are local and absolute minimums

x = π4 is the only absolute minimum;

x = 3π4
is a local minimum;

3π
x = 4 is the only absolute maximum;

x = 7π4 is a local maximum

π
x= 4
is the only absolute and local maximum;
7π
x= 4
is the only absolute and local minimum

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5.8.32

1
Given the function f (x ) = x2 +1 , answer the following questions.

Part 1
The graph of this function has one critical point, find the coordinates of this critical point.

(0, 1)

1
(1, 2
)

1
(−1, 2
)

1
(2, 5
)

(−2. 15 )

1
Given the function f (x ) = x2 +1 , answer the following questions.

Part 2
Find all inflection points.

(− , ) and
1 3
3 4
( , )
1 3
3 4

( , ) only
1 3
3 4

(− 13 ,
9
10
) and ( 13 ,

9
10
)

( 13 ,

9
10
) only

(− 13 ,
9
8
)

1
Given the function f (x ) = x2 +1
, answer the following questions.

Part 3
Use the second derivative test to classify all critical points as local max, local min, or neither.

(0, 1) is a local max since f ′′ (0) > 0

(0, 1) is a local max since f ′′ (0) < 0

(0, 1) is a local min since f ′′ (0) > 0

(0, 1) is a local min since f ′′ (0) < 0

(0, 1) is neither a local max nor local min

1
Given the function f (x ) = x2 +1
, answer the following questions.

Part 4
Determine the intervals of concave up and concave down.

Concave up: x < 0

Concave down: x > 0

Concave up: − 13 < x < 13

Concave down: x < − 13 and x > 1

< − 13 and x >

Concave up: x
1
3

Concave down: − 13 < x < 13

1 1
Concave up: − 3
<x< 3

1 1
Concave down: x <− 3
and
x> 3

1 1
Concave up: x <− 3
and
x> 3

1 1
Concave down: − 3
<x< 3

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5.8.33

Graph y = xe−3x for the domain [0, 1]. Label any critical point
or inflection point.

1 −1 2 −2
2
e , e
3

1 2 2
3 ,
e e
3

1 −1 2 −2
3
e , e
3

1 2 2
2 ,
e e
3

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5.8.34
x2 − 9
Q. Sketch of the graph of f (x) = 2 . The first and the second derivatives are
x +1

20x −3x2 + 1
′
f (x) = 2 and ′′
f (x) = 20[ 2 ]
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2

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5.8.35
2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = xe−x /2 .

Answer

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5.8.36

Find the area of the largest rectangle that has two vertices on the x-axis and two vertices lying on
the graph of y = 8 − x2 with
− 8≤x≤ 8.

+ 2( )
8 8
16
3 3

− 2( )
8 8
16
3 3

+ 2( )
8 8
16
3 3

− 2( )
8 8
16
3 3

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5.8.37

A cylindrical cone without a top is made to contain 81π cm3 of liquid. Determine the dimensions of
the can that minimize the area
of metal used.

r = 3; h = 3

r = 9; h = 9

3 3
r= 81; h =
81

5 5
r= 81; h =
81

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5.8.38

Suppose you have a rectangle of perimeter 20. Find the dimensions that will maximize the area.

x = 5, y = 5

x = 4, y = 6

x = 8, y = 2

x = 3, y = 7

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 2 practice problems on [Link]

6. Applications of
Differentiation: Analytical
(Exam Weighting: 8-11%)
6.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 5: Analytical Applications of

Differentiation
We will continue our exploration into applications of differentiation, but focus on the abstract aspect
of differentiation, mainly how the derivative relates in a graphical context.

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following concepts and should be able to apply
them to real-world application problems:

1. Understand and apply the Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

2. Understand how the first derivative of a function is related to the increasing and decreasing
intervals of its graph

3. Understand the difference between global vs local extremas

4. Understand what are critical points and know how to find them

5. Apply the extreme value theorem and know how to find global extremas using the candidates test

6. Find local extrema using the first derivative test

7. Understand how the second derivative of a function is related to the concavity and points of
inflection of its graph

8. Find local extrema using the second derivative test

9. Be able to sketch functions

10. Be able to relate the graph of a function to the graphs of its first and second derivatives, and
identify key graphical features from all of these graphs

11. Solve optimization application problems using what you know about the first and second
derivative of the modelling functions

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6.1 The Extreme Value Theorem

6.1.1

Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)

Continuous functions on a closed interval are guaranteed to have a maximum and a minimum.

Extreme Value Theorem

If f (x) is a continuous function on [a, b], then f (x) must have both a maximum and minimum value
on [a, b].

Formally, there existsm, M ∈ [a, b] such that f (M ) ≥ f (x) ≥ f (m), for all x ∈ [a, b]

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6.2 The Mean Value Theorem

6.2.1

The Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

We can extend the idea of Rolle's Theorem with the Mean Value Theorem.

Mean Value Theorem

Suppose that a function f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b], and is differentiable on the interval
(a, b). Then there exists a value c in the interval (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a

Note: In other words, since f is continuous and differentiable, then in between every two points a and
b, there is a point c for which the slope of the tangent line at c is equal to the slope of the secant line
linking (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).

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6.2.2

Example: Mean Value Theorem

Suppose f is a differentiable function such that f ′ (x) ≤ 5 for all x in [1, 5] and f (1) = 3. What is
an upper bound on f (5)?

Solution available online

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6.2.3

Given f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2on the interval x in [−1, 3], what value of c does the mean value theorem
guarantee exists?

Answer

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6.3 Intervals of Increase and Decrease

6.3.1

Intervals of Increase and Decrease

If a function has a positively sloped tangent line at a certain point, the function must be going up.
Thus, the derivative tells us where functions are increasing and decreasing.

Intervals of Increase

A function f (x) is increasing on an interval if when x ≤ y , then f (x) ≤ f (y) , for every x and y in
that interval.

A function f (x) is increasing if f ′ (x) > 0 on that interval.

Intervals of Decrease

A function f (x) is decreasing on an interval if when x ≤ y , then f (x) ≥ f (y) , for every x and y in
that interval.

A function f (x)is decreasing if f ′ (x) < 0 on that interval.

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6.3.2

Example: Intervals of Increase and Decrease

Find the intervals in which the function f (x) = x2 is increasing or decreasing.

Solution available online

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6.3.3
−1
Find the intervals in which the function f (x) = is increasing.
x+1

(−∞, ∞)

(−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

(−∞, −1)

(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)

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6.4 Critical Points and Extrema

6.4.1

Critical Points and Extrema

Since our first derivative can tell us intervals of increasing/decreasing, it can also give us locations of
Extrema.

Critical Points

A critical point of a function f (x) is a point x ,in its domain, for which f ′ (x) = 0

Singular Points

A singular point of a function f (x) is a point x ,in its domain, for which f ′ (x) does not exist.

Relative Extrema

A function f (x) has a relative (local) maximum at a point x, in its domain, if there is a small interval
I , around x, such that f (x) ≥ f (y) for every y in I .

A function f (x) has a relative (local) minimum at a point x, in its domain, if there is a small interval I
, around x, such that f (x) ≤ f (y)for every y in I .

WIZE TIP

Relative extrema occur at either critical points or singular points!

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6.4.2

Example: Critical Points and Extrema

Find the critical points and extrema of f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 36x + 2.

Solution available online

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6.4.3

Find the critical points for f (x) =x−33x

First point, type (x, y) -negative x value

Second Point , type (x, y) - positive x value

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6.5 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests

6.5.1

The 1st and 2nd Derivative Tests

When a functions switches from increasing to decreasing (or vise versa) there will be a local
maximum (or minimum) value. Often we'd like to know what type of extrema occurs at critical points.
We can classify our critical points using the following derivative tests.

First Derivative Test

Suppose f (x)is a continuous function on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b) , and P in (a, b) is a critical
point of f (x)

● P is a relative minimum of f (x)if f ′ (x) changes from negative to positive at P

● P is a relative maximum of f (x)if f ′ (x)changes from positive to negative at P

Second Derivative Test

Assume f (x) is a function such that f ′′ (x)is continuous on an open interval containing the point P

● if f ′ (P ) = 0 and f ′′ (P ) > 0 , then P is a relative minimum

● if f ′ (P ) = 0 and f ′′ (P ) < 0 , then P is a relative maximum

● if f ′ (P ) = 0 and f ′′ (P ) = 0 , then the test is inconclusive

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6.5.2

Example: Finding Relative Extrema

Find the relative extrema (max or min) of the function f (x ) = e x ( x 2 − 3 ) + 5

Solution available online

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6.5.3

Example: 2nd Derivative Test

Use the second derivative test to classify the relative extrema of f (x) = −3x5 + 5x3 .

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6.5.4

Find and classify the critical points of f (x) = xex − ex as relative maximums or minimums.

Enter the coordinates of the relative minimum point in the form (x, y). If there's no relative min, enter DNE.

Enter the coordinates of the relative maximum point in the form (x, y). If there's no relative max, enter DNE.

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6.6 Maximum and Minimum on Closed

Intervals
6.6.1

Maximum and Minimum on Closed Intervals

A continuous function on a closed interval will always have a largest and smallest value. The values
are called Absolute Extrema or Global Extrema.

Absolute Extrema

A function f (x) has an absolute maximum at a point x in its domain if f (x) ≥ f (y) for every y in
the domain.

A function f (x) has an absolute minimum at a point x in its domain if f (x) ≤ f (y)for every y in the
domain.

Note: This definition can also be applied to a function on an interval. The absolute extrema are the
biggest and smallest value achieved by the function on that interval.

Maximum and Minimum on Closed Intervals

For a continuous function f (x)on a closed interval [a, b], there exists an absolute minimum and an
absolute maximum.

WATCH OUT!

This is not necessarily true on an open interval!

Procedure to find the Absolute Extrema of a function on a Closed Interval [a,b]

1. Find all critical points and singular points of f (x) in the open interval (a, b)

2. Compute f (x) at the critical points and singular points and at the endpoints x = a and x = b

3. The largest and smallest values found are the absolute maximum and minimum respectively

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6.6.2

Example: Finding Absolute Extrema

2
Find the absolute extrema (max/min) of f (x) = e−x + 1 on the interval [−1, ∞).

Solution available online

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6.6.3

Find the absolute minimum of f (x) = arcsin ( x2 ) on the interval [1, 2].

π
8

π
6

π
4

π
2

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6.6.4
2x
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of value of f (x) = on the interval [0, 2]
x2 + 1

Absolute Max

Absolute Min

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6.7 Concavity and Inflection Points

6.7.1

Concavity and Inflection Points

While the first derivative tells us about where a function is increasing and decreasing, the second
derivative tells us about a functions Concavity. Concavity is the "U" shape of the graph (either up or
down).

Concavity

Assume f ′ (x) is differentiable on the interval (a, b)

● If f ′′ (x) > 0 then f (x) is concave up

● If f ′′ (x) < 0 then f (x) is concave down

Inflection Points

An inflection point of a function f (x) is a point ,in its domain, at which there is a change in concavity
in the graph of f (x)

WIZE TIP

An infection point can occur where f (x)′′ = 0 or where the second derivative is not defined.

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6.7.2

Example: Concavity and Inflection Points

Determine the intervals of concavity and locate any inflection points for f (x) = ln (1 + x2 )

Solution available online

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6.7.3
ln x
Find the equation of the tangent line to the function f (x) = x
at its inflection point.

Enter your answer as y = mx + b

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6.8 Curve Sketching

6.8.1

Curve Sketching
Combining our knowledge of the first and second derivatives lets us sketch the graph of functions by
hand. We will put together the techniques of finding asymptotes, intervals of increase/decrease,
extrema, intervals of concavity, and inflection points.

Procedure for completely Sketching a Curve

1. Find the domain of f (x).

2. Find the y -intercepts and (if possible) thex-intercepts.

3. Find all the vertical, horizontal and slant asymptotes.

The line y = mx + b is a slant asymptote of the graph of f (x) if either

limx→−∞ [f (x) − (mx + b)] = 0 or limx→+∞ [f (x) − (mx + b)] = 0

(You might have to do long division)

4. Compute f ′ (x). Use it to find all the critical points and singular points of f (x). Use this
information to find the intervals of increase and decrease and extrema.

5. Computef ′′ (x). Find the points for which f ′′ (x) = 0 or f ′′ (x) does not exist. Use this
information to find the intervals of concavity and inflection points.

6. Plot all relevant points, asymptotes, and use the information gathered to plot the graph of f (x).

WIZE TIP

It is not always necessary, but it may be helpful to check if f (x) has even or odd symmetry.

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6.8.2

Example: Curve Sketching

Sketch the function

x3
f (x ) = −x
3

Solution available online

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6.8.3
1
Sketch of the graph of f (x) = . The first and the second derivatives are
x2 + 1

−2x 6x2 − 2
f ′ (x) = 2 and f ′′ (x) = 3
(x 2 + 1 ) (x 2 + 1 )

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6.8.4

Practice: Curve Sketching From Derivatives

The first derivative f ′ (x) is depicted below

Part 1
List the critical points of f (x) and classify them as a max, min, or neither.

Practice: Curve Sketching From Derivatives

The first derivative f ′ (x) is depicted below

Part 2
List the inflection points of f (x )

Practice: Curve Sketching From Derivatives

The first derivative f ′ (x) is depicted below

Part 3
Sketch a graph of f (x )

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6.9 Optimization

6.9.1

Optimization
The technique of finding a function's maximum and minimums can be applied to Optimization
problems. These problems involve find the optimal value of a function, usually with a constraint
equation.

Procedure for Optimization Problems

1. Determine what you are minimizing/maximizing and draw a picture if possible

2. Write an equation for the quantity you are trying to maximize or minimize

(If there is more than 1 independent variable, create another equation relating the variables)

3. Combine these to get an equation with an independent and a dependent variable

4. Find and classify the critical points of this final combined equation

5. Answer the question

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6.9.2

Example: Optimization
A farmer wishes to create a rectangular fenced enclosure for his animals. He has 600 ft. of fencing
material and will construct the enclosure using a pre-existing fence as one side. Find the dimensions
of the fenced area to maximize the enclosure.

Solution available online

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6.9.3

Example: Optimization
Find the point on the graph of the equation y = x, x ≥ 0, that is the closest to the point (3, 0).

Solution available online

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6.9.4

Four square corners are cut from a rectangular sheet measuring 160 cm by 160cm, and the remaining
shape is bent to form an open-topped box. Find the side length of the cut-out square that maximizes
the volume of the box.

Enter your answer in cm, do NOT include units

Answer

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6.9.5

Find the area of the largest rectangle that has two vertices on the x-axis and two vertices lying on
the graph of y = 8 − x2 with
− 8≤x≤ 8.

8
16 3

3
16 8
3
− 2( 8
3
)

3
16 8
3

+ 2( 3)
8

3
16 8
3
+ 4( 8
3
)

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 1 practice problem on [Link]

7. Integration 1:
Antiderivative &
Accumulation of Change
(Exam Weighting: 17-
20%)
7.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 6: Integration & Accumulation of

Change
So far in Calculus, we've learned that differentiation is used to represent and solve problems involving
instantaneous rates of change. We will now switch gears completely and look at another big problem
in Calculus, the accumulation of change. Instead of looking at how quickly a quantity changes in an
instance in time, we ask the question "what is the meaning of the total change over a period of time
and how do we calculate that?"

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following concepts and should be able to apply
them to real-world application problems:

1. Understand that the area under a curve represents the total change of the associated function over
a certain interval

2. Understand how Riemann sums and sigma notation can be used to approximate the area under a
curve

3. Understand how the definite integral is used to represent the exact area under a curve

4. Evaluating definite integrals by relating it to area formulas

5. Applying properties of definite integrals

6. Understand and be able to find antiderivatives and indefinite integrals

7. Understand the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (part 1) and how it establishes a relationship
between differentiation and integration

8. Understand and apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (part 2) to evaluate definite integrals
without using area formulas

9. Integration technique #1: Integration using substitution

10. Integration technique #2: Integration using long division

11. Integration technique #3: Integration by completing the square

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7.1 Finite Sums

7.1.1

Finite Sums
When adding up a large number of terms, it's often helpful to use Summation (Sigma) Notation.

Finite Sums

The symbol

n
∑ xi

i=1

denotes the finite sum of all numbers xi , where i varies from 1 to n.

5
∑i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5

i=1

Important Finite Sums

n n n 2
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
(1) ∑ i = (2) ∑ i = 2
(3) ∑ i = ( 3
)
2 6 2

i=1 i=1 i=1

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7.1.2

Example: Finite Sums

Evaluate the following sums

4
π
a) ∑ j sin (j )
2

j=1

Solution available online

6
b) ∑(3 − j 2 )

j=1

Solution available online

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7.1.3

Evaluate

10
∑ [2 (i − 3i2 ) − 1]

i=1

−576

−581

−586

−2210

−2320

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7.1.4
20
Evaluate ∑ (3i − 4)
i=10

121

425

451

461

None of the above

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7.2 Approximating Areas & Riemann Sums

7.2.1

Approximating Areas & Riemann Sums

Areas of planar regions can be approximated (estimated) using finite sums and this process is easier
when the region is bounded by the graph of a function.

To approximate the area under the curve f (x) on the interval [a, b], we divide the area into
rectangles with equal widths Δx. Each rectangle will have height f (x). Then, the approximate area
is the sum of the areas of all of these rectangles.

WIZE TIP

Depending on how we draw these rectangles, we will get slightly different area
approximations.

Common Approximation Rules/Methods

● Right Endpoint Rule: The area is estimated using rectangles whose right endpoint touches the
graph of the function.

● Left Endpoint Rule: The area is estimated using rectangles whose left endpoint touches the
graph of the function.

● Midpoint Rule: The area is estimated using rectangles whose midpoint touches the graph of the
function.

● Lower Sum: The area is estimated using rectangles lying inside the region, with one point
touching the graph.

The sum of the areas of these rectangles is called a Riemann Sum.

Riemann Sum

Let f (x) be a function and xi a set of points in its domain. We can estimate the area under the graph

of f (x) on the interval [a, b] using the Riemann Sum

n
∑ f (xi )Δx

i=1

Where Δx is a constant of the form

b−a
Δx =

● xi = a + iΔx is a right hand rule

● xi = a + (i − 1)Δx is a left hand rule

● xi = a + (i − 1/2)Δx is a midpoint rule

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7.2.2

Example: Riemann Sums

Estimate the area under the curve and over [0, 1] of the function y = 1 − x2 using 4 rectangles.

Solution available online

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7.2.3

Use the left-endpoint Riemann sum, with n = 4, to estimate the area under the curve f (x) = ex − x
on the interval [1, 13].

3 [e + e4 + e7 + e10 ] − 22

3 [e4 + e7 + e10 + e13 ] − 34

3 [e + e4 + e7 + e10 ] − 66

3 [e2 + e5 + e8 + e11 ] − 78

3 [e4 + e7 + e10 + e13 ] − 102

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7.3 The Definite Integral

7.3.1

The Definite Integrals & Area Under a Curve

If we let the number of rectangles used in our Riemann Sum approximation grow to infinity, we can
compute the exact area under a curve.

n
Area = lim ∑ f (xi )Δx

n→∞
i=1

Definite Integrals

The area under the graph of a function f (x) on an interval [a, b] is given by the definite integral.

b n
∫ f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (xi )Δx

a n→∞
i=1

b−a
where Δx = n
and
xi = a + iΔx

WIZE TIP

The indefinite integral ∫ f (x) dx is a function.

b
The definite integral ∫ f (x) dx is a number.
a

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7.3.2

Example: The Definition of the Definite Integral

Describe the area calculated by the following sum and compute the area.

n 2
lim ∑ [ (1 + ) ]
1 i

n→∞
i=1
n n

Solution available online

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7.3.3
3
If Δx = n
andxi
= iΔx, then what is the integral that represents
n
lim ∑ xi (1 + xi ) Δx
2

n→∞
i=1

2
∫ x3 dx
−1

3
∫
2
x2 (1 + x) dx
0

3
∫
2
x (1 + x) dx
0

4
∫
2
x (1 + x) dx
1

4
∫
x3 dx
1

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7.3.4

Practice: Definite Integrals Using Riemann Sums

4
Evaluate ∫ (2x2 + 3)dx using Riemann sums.

128
3

64
3

164
3

256
3

None of the above

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7.4 Properties of Definite Integrals

7.4.1

Properties of the Definite Integral

1. a
∫ f (x)dx = 0

2. b
∫ kdx = k(b − a) for any constant k

3. b c b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx for all c in [a, b]

a a c

4. b b b
∫ [f (x) ± g(x)]dx = ∫ f (x)dx ± ∫ g(x)dx

a a a

5. b b
∫ kf (x)dx = k ∫ f (x)dx for any constant k

a a

6. b a
∫ f (x)dx = − ∫
f (x)dx

a b

7. a
∫
f (x) dx = 0, if f (x) is an odd function

−a

8. a a
∫ f (x) dx = 2 ∫ f (x) dx, if f (x) is an even function

−a 0

Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals

If f (x)is a continuous function on [a, b]then there exists a ≤ c ≤ b such that

b
∫ f (x)dx = f (c)(b − a)

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7.4.2

Suppose f (−x) = −f (x) and g (−x) = g (x) for all x values.

1 0 1
If ∫ f (x) dx = 5 and ∫ g (x) dx = 7, evaluate ∫ [2f (x) + 3g (x)] dx
0 −1 −1

−20

−42

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7.4.3
7 10
Suppose f (x) is continuous and let ∫ f (x) dx = 7 and ∫ f (x) dx = 10.
0 0

10
Find 5 ∫ f (x) dx.
7

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7.5 Computing Definite Integrals

Geometrically
7.5.1

Computing Definite Integrals Geometrically

Definite integrals represent area under a curve and can be computationally intensive. For certain
functions, we can compute definite integrals simply by finding the area of common geometric shapes.

Geometric Integrals

b
The area under the graph of a continuous function f (x) on an interval [a, b] is equal to ∫ f (x)dx.

a
Recall

● Area of a Rectange = length × width

1
● Area of a Triangle = 2

× base × height

● Area of a Circle = π × r2

WATCH OUT!

You may have to compute some integrals geometrically if you don't yet have the techniques of
integration to do otherwise.

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7.5.2

Example: Computing Integrals Geometrically

Compute the definite integral geometrically

2
∫ (2 − ∣x∣)dx

−2

Solution available online

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7.5.3

Compute the following integral geometrically

5
∫ 25 − x2 dx

Enter the exact value of the definite integral.

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7.6 Antiderivatives & The Indefinite

Integrals
7.6.1

Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral)

If F ′ (x) = f (x), then F (x) is called the antiderivative or indefinite integral of f (x).

WIZE TIP

Antiderivative just means reversing a derivative.

Indefinite Integrals

There are many possible antiderivatives to one function f (x) . The collection of all such
antiderivatives is called the indefinite integral of f (x), and is denoted

∫ f (x)dx

If F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), then

∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C

where C is an arbitrary constant.

WATCH OUT!

When asked to find the antiderivative of a function, don’t forget the +C !

Reverse Power Rule

If f (x) = xn , when n =
 −1, then we can use the power rule in revere to find its indefinite integral:

xn+1
∫ x dx =
n
+C
n+1

WATCH OUT!
1
= x−1 does not follow the Reverse Power Rule!

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7.6.2

Example: Antiderivatives
Find all the antiderivatives of f (x) = 4x3 + x

Solution available online

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7.6.3

Find the antiderivative of f (x).

x2
f (x) = 4x + +5
2

2x3
2x + − 5x − C
6

x3
x2 + 6
+ 5x + C

x3
2x2 + 6
+ 5x

x3
2x2 + 6
+ 5x + C

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7.6.4

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ (x + 2)2 dx

Don't forget +C !

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7.6.5

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

x4 − 3x
∫ dx

Don't forget +C !

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7.7 Antiderivatives of Trig Functions

7.7.1

Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) of Trig Functions

Let k be a nonzero constant. Then we have the following indefinite integral rules:

1 1
∫ sin (kx)dx = − cos (kx) + C ∫ cos (kx)dx = sin (kx) + C

k k

1 1
∫ sec2 (kx)dx = tan(kx) + C
∫ sec(kx) tan(kx)dx = sec(kx) + C

k k

1 1
∫ csc2 (kx)dx = − cot(kx) + C ∫ csc(kx) cot(kx)dx = − csc(kx) + C

k k

Additionally

∫ tan xdx = − ln ∣ cos x∣ + C ∫ cot xdx = ln ∣ sin x∣

∫ sec xdx = ln ∣ sec x + tan x∣ + C ∫ csc xdx = − ln ∣ csc x + cot x∣ + C

WIZE TIP

These last four indefinite integrals can be found using future techniques of integration and are
not always required to be memorized.

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7.7.2

Example: Trig Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ 1 + tan2 θ dθ

Solution available online

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7.7.3

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ (x2 + 2 sin x − 3 cos x)dx

Don't forget +C !

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7.7.4

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ (sec 2x)(cos2 2x)dx

Don't forget +C !

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7.8 Antiderivatives of Inverse Trig

Functions
7.8.1

Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integrals) of Inverse Trig Functions

Let a > 0. Then we have the following indefinite integral rules:

1 x
∫ dx = arcsin ( ) + C
a 2 − x2

1 1 x
∫ dx = arctan ( )+C
a 2 + x2

a a

1 1 ∣x∣
∫ dx = arcsec ( ) + C
x x2 − a 2

a a

WATCH OUT!

Different sources will state slightly different versions of the integral involving arcsecx.

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7.8.2

Example: Inverse Trig Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

2
∫ dx
−x2 + 9

Solution available online

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7.8.3

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

1
∫ dx
4 + 2x2

Don't forget +C !

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7.9 Antiderivatives of Exponential

Functions
7.9.1

Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) of Exponential Functions

Let k be a nonzero constant. Then we have the following indefinite integral rules:

ekx
∫ e dx =
kx
+C

akx
∫ a dx =
kx
+ C , (for a > 0, a =
 1)
k ln a

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7.9.2

Example: Exponential Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate the following Indefinite Integral

∫ (ex )9 dx

Solution available online

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7.9.3

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ (e3 − e3x + 3x )dx

Don't forget +C !

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7.9.4

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

x
( + 1)
∫ 7 2

1
72x × 7

1
2 × ln 7

1
14 × 7 2 x

+C
ln 7

1
72x

+C
ln 7

1
7 × 72x

+C
x × ln 7

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7.10 Antiderivatives of x1

7.10.1

Antiderivatives (Indefinite Integral) of x1

Let k be a nonzero constant. Then we have the following indefinite integral rules:

1
∫ dx = ln ∣x∣ + C, (for x 
= 0)

1 1
∫ dx = ln ∣kx + a∣ + C , (for x 
= 0, a constant)
kx + a

WATCH OUT!

Notice the absolute value bars inside the natural logarithm!

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:36)

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7.10.2

Example: Indefinite integrals of x1

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

x2 + x + 2
∫ dx
x2

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:53)

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7.10.3

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

3
∫ dx
4 − 2x

−3
ln ∣4 − 2x∣ + C
2

3
ln ∣(4 − 2x)∣ + C
2

−3 ln ∣4 − 2x∣ + C

3 ln ∣2x∣ + C

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7.11 Initial Conditions

7.11.1

Initial Conditions

We don't always get unique answers for ∫ f (x)dx. Instead we get F (x) + C . If we are given some
initial conditions for the function, we can find this constant by substituting the coordinates and
solving for C .

Finding f(x) from f'(x)

To recover f (x) from f ′ (x), givenf (a) = b:

1. Antiderive f ′ (x)to obtain f (x). (Don't forget +C )

2. Substitute f (a) = b to solve for C .
3. Rewrite f (x) with the value ofC .

Finding f(x) from f''(x)

To recover f (x) from f ′′ (x), given two initial conditions, we have to integrate twice:

1. Antiderive f ′′ (x) to obtain f ′ (x). (Don't forget +C )

2. Antiderive f ′ (x) to obtain f (x).
3. The second time we antiderive we pick up another constant of integration D , and we get
Cx + D.
4. Substitute the given conditions to find C and D .
5. Rewrite f (x)with the values of C and D .

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:10)

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7.11.2

Example: Initial Conditions

Find f (x) if f (0) = 1 and f ′ (x) = x2 + x.

Solution available online

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7.11.3

Given f ′′ (x) = 5ex + 2 sin x, f (0) = 0, and f (π) = 0, find f (x).

Answer

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7.12 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

- Part 1
7.12.1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) - Part I

The first part of The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus explores the direct relationship between
derivatives and integrals.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: 1

Let f (x) be a continuous function. Define

x
F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt

Then F (x) is differentiable and it is the antiderivative of f (x) , that is, F ′ (x) = f (x).

x
d
∫ f (t) dt = f (x)

dx c

WIZE CONCEPT

This means that integration and differentiation are "inverse" operations: if we apply one and
then the other, the original function remains unchanged (up to addition of a constant).

FTC Part 1 & the Chain Rule

If the bounds are functions of x, we have (by the Chain Rule):

g(x)
d
∫ f (t) dt = f (g(x)) ⋅ g ′ (x)

dx c

g(x)
d
∫ f (t) dt = f (g(x)) ⋅ g ′ (x) − f (h(x)) ⋅ h′ (x)

dx h(x)

WIZE TIP

When differentiating a definite integral, there is no need to antiderive the function! Simply
substitute the bounds for t and multiply by the derivatives of the bounds if necessary.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:15)

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7.12.2

Example: FTC Part 1

Find the derivative using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

2
3t − 1
[∫ dt]
d
dx x t5 + 1

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:17)

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7.12.3

Example: FTC Part 1

π
[∫ (t4 − 1) dt]
d
Find

dx 3

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (0:47)

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7.12.4
2
x
d
Find the derivative of the integral ∫

sin t2 dt.

dx 0

Answer

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7.12.5
cos x
d
Compute f (π/3)given that f (x) = ∫ ln t dt .

dx sin x

ln ( ) − ln ( )
3 1 1 3
A) −

2 2 2 2

B) ln ( 12 ) − ln ( 2 )
3

C) − ln ( 23 ) + ln ( 12 )

D) ln ( 2 ) − ln ( 12 )
3

E) None of the aboves

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7.13 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

- Part 2
7.13.1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) - Part 2

Computing definite integrals by definition is often difficult and time consuming. Fortunately, the second
part of The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus provides us with a straightforward way of computing
definite integrals.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: 2

Let f (x) be a continuous function on [a, b], so that F ′ (x) = f (x) on [a, b]we have

b
∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)

b
Note: Sometimes we will use the notation F (x)
= F (b) − F (a)
a

WIZE CONCEPT

To compute definite integrals using FTC, compute the antiderivative of the function, substitute
the upper bound, and subtract substituting the lower bound.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:09)

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7.13.2

Example: FTC Part 2

Evaluate the integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

2
∫ 3 xdx

Solution available online

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7.13.3

Example: FTC Part 2

Evaluate the integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

4
1
∫ e−3x + 2x − 1 dx

1 x2

Solution available online

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7.13.4
0
Evaluate ∫ x2 − 1 dx.

−2

− 43

4
3

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7.13.5
2
If ∫ [3(kx)2 + (k + 1)x + 1]dx = 10, then what is a possible value of k ?

-1

-1/10

1/10

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7.13.6
1
Given that both f (x) andf (x) are continuous everywhere, iff (1) = 10 and ∫
′
f ′ (x) dx = 12,
−3
find f (−3).

−2

−22

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7.14 Integrating Even and Odd Functions

7.14.1

Integrating Even and Odd Functions

WIZE CONCEPT

A function f (x)is odd if f (−x) = −f (x). Odd functions are symmetric about the origin.

A function f (x)is even if f (−x) = f (x). Even functions are symmetric about the y-axis.

Integrating Odd Functions on Symmetric Intervals

Since on one side of the origin the function is negative but has the same y-values as on the other side
of the origin, areas under the curve cancel out over symmetric intervals:

If f (x)is an odd function then

a
∫ f (x) dx = 0

−a

Integrating Even Functions on Symmetric Intervals

Since for corresponding (±) x-values the graph has the same y-values on both sides of the y-axis,
areas under the curve on each side are the same over symmetric intervals.

If f (x)is an even function then

a a
∫ f (x) dx = 2 ∫ f (x) dx

−a 0

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7.14.2

Example: Integrating Even/Odd Functions

Evaluate the following definite integral

1
∫ (5x5 + 2x4 ) dx

−1

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:53)

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7.14.3

Evaluate the following definite integral

π
∫ (2 sin3 x − 4 cos x) dx

−π

Answer

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7.15 Integration by Substitution (U-

Substitution)
7.15.1

Integration by Substitution (U-Substitution)

There is no "Chain Rule for Integrals" like there is for derivatives. When we are trying to integrate
compositions of functions, often we use the technique of U Substitution.

U Substitution

If f (x) is a differentiable function with a continuous derivative f ′ (x), by letting u = f (x)we have

b f (b)
∫ g(f (x)) × f (x)dx = ∫

′

g(u)du

a f (a)

WIZE TIP

We typically use U-Substitution when the derivative of one part shows up elsewhere in the
integral.

Procedure for U-Substitution

1. Let u equal part of the integrand (usually what's inside parenthesis or the "messy" part of the

function)

2. Differentiate u to get du

3. Solve for dx

4. Substitute u and dxinto your integral (for definite integrals replace the bounds)

5. Integrate with respect to u

6. Substitute the original xexpression back in (only for indefinite integrals)

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:20)

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7.15.2

Example: U-Sub
Evaluate the following definite integral

1
∫
5
(2 − 4x) (x − x2 ) dx.
−1

Solution available online

WIZE TIP

Since this is a definite integral, we don't have to substitute the original x expression back in.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (4:14)

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7.15.3

Example: U Sub
Evaluate the following definite integral

4
∫ x x2 + 1 dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:21)

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7.15.4

Example: U-Sub (with back-substitution)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

x − x3
∫ dx
1 + x2

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:51)

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7.15.5

Practice: U-Sub
Evaluate the following indefinite integral

ln(x)
∫ dx

Use upper case C for any constants

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7.15.6

Practice: U-Sub
Evaluate the following indefinite integral

sec 3x tan 3x
∫ dx
(1 + sec 3x)3/2

Use upper case C for any constants

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7.15.7

Practice: U-Sub
Evaluate the following indefinite integral

tan x
∫ dx
ln(cos x)

Use upper case C for any constants

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7.15.8

Practice: U-Sub
Evaluate the following indefinite integral

1
∫ dx
e3x − 1

Use upper case C for any constants

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7.16 Exam-Like Practice Questions

7.16.1
10
Evaluate ∑ [2i − 3].

i=5

None of the above

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7.16.2

1
ex
∫ 2 dx

1
ex + C

1
−e x + C

1
− exx2 +C

1
− 3ex3x + C

1
3e x
+C

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7.16.3

Find ∫ cot x ln (sin x) dx.

2
[ln(sin x)]
2
+C

csc x[ln(sin x)]2

2
+C

sin x[ln x]2

2
+C

sec x ln (sin x) + C

None of the above

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7.16.4

(x − 2) e(x −4x) dx.

2 2
Evaluate ∫0

−1
4
2e
− 1+e

e2−4x
2+e4

4
1−e
2e4

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7.16.5
3
Find ∫ (2 x − + 2 sin x) dx
4 − x2

Use upper case C for any constants

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7.16.6

For the following function, find the most general antiderivative.

x5 + 2 x
f (x) =

x5
+ x1/2 + C
10

x5
− x1/2 + C
20

x5
+ x1/2 + C
20

x5
− x1/2 + C
10

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7.16.7
x
+x
Evaluate ∫ ee dx.
x
ee + C

ex + x + C

x 2
+ x2
ee

+C
x
x2
ee + 2
+C

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7.16.8
5
Compute: ∫ (x3 + sin x)dx

Answer

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7.16.9

Compute
4
2
∫ dx
x2

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7.16.10

Evaluate

20
∑i=1 (1 + 4i)

800

820

840

860

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7.16.11

Evaluate Σ10
i=3 [ i (2 + i ) − 1 ]

462

476

483

494

496

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7.16.12
8 1
Compute ∫0 3 dx.

Answer

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7.16.13
n
3 1
Evaluate lim ∑ ( )
3i

n→∞ n
i=1 1+

Answer

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7.16.14

Practice: Definite Integral

1 3
Evaluate ∫0 9+x2 + 2x ln 2 dx.

π
4
−8

π
12
+7

π
2
+ 8 ln 2

1
182
+7

None of the above

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7.16.15

(x − 2) e(x −4x) dx.

2 2
Evaluate ∫0

−1
4
2e
− 1+e

e2−4x
2+e4

1−e4
2e4

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7.16.16
2x
Let f (x ) = ∫ 0 1 + 4t dt. Compute f ′ (2).

Answer

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7.16.17

Integrate
π/2
∫
sin3 (x) cos(x) dx
−π/2

Answer

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7.16.18

Estimate
2
∫ (x + 1) dx
1

using left Riemann sum with 10 subintervals.

Answer

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7.16.19

Calculate the right endpoint and left endpoint Riemann sums for the function f (x) = x2 − 1 over
the interval [0, 3] by dividing the interval into 6 subintervals of equal length (i.e. use 6 rectangles)

Lower Sum

Upper Sum

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🌶️ Evaluate the limit by recognizing the Riemann sum:

7.16.20

n
27i3
lim ∑ .
n4

n→∞
i=1

Enter your answer as a fraction.

Answer

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7.16.21
n
1 2i
Rewrite lim ∑ sin ( ) as a definite integral
2i

n→∞ n
i=1

2
∫ x sin x dx
0

1 2
∫ x sin x dx
2 0

2
sin x
∫ dx
2x

2
sin x
2∫
dx

0 x
2
sin x
4∫ dx
x

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7.16.22

(∫x t2 dt).
d x2
Find dx

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7.16.23

x
If g (x) = ∫1 cos t dt, find g ′ ( π2 ).

−1

π
2

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 6 practice problems on [Link]

8. Integration 2:
Integration Techniques
(Exam Weighting: 17-
20%)
8.1 Integration by Parts

8.1.1

Integration by Parts (IBP)

There is no "Product Rule for integrals" like there is for derivatives. When trying to integrate the
product of two functions, we can use the technique of Integration By Parts.

∫ u ⋅ dv = u ⋅ v − ∫ v ⋅ du

When to use IBP

We can use IBP when integrating a product of two different function types.

1
● ∫0 xe5x dx

● ∫ x2 sin x dx

● ∫ e3x cos (5x) dx

● ∫ ln x dx

Procedure for IBP

1. Identify the two different function types

2. Let one part be uand the other be dv .

○ L - Logarithmic Functions

○ I - Inverse Functions

○ A- Algebraic Functions

○ T- Trig Functions

○ E - Exponential Functions

3. Differentiate u → duand integrate dv → v

4. Rewrite the integral using the formula ∫ u ⋅ dv = u ⋅ v − ∫ v ⋅ du

WATCH OUT!

Sometimes you may need to use IBP more than once in the same problem!

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:36)

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8.1.2

Example: (Repeated) Integration By Parts

Compute the following indefinite integral

∫ x2 sin x dx

1. Identify the 2 function types

Solution available online

2. Pick u and dv
Solution available online

3. Differentiate and integrate

Solution available online

4. Rewriting using the formula:

Solution available online

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8.1.3

Example: Integration By Parts

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

x
∫ ln ( ) dx
2

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:30)

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8.1.4

Example: (Repeated) Integration By Parts

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ e3x cos 5x dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (6:01)

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8.1.5

Practice: Integration By Parts

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ x arctan x dx

Use upper case C for any constants

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8.1.6

Practice: Integration By Parts

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sec3 x dx

Use upper case C for any constants

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8.2 Trigonometric Integrals

8.2.1

Trigonometric Integrals
When integrating complex trigonometric functions, we often need to use a combination of
substitutions and trig identities.

Case 1: ∫ sinm x cosn x dx

● Power of sin x is odd

○ Keep a copy of sin x and convert the rest to cos x using sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x

○ Formula: ∫ cosn x(1 − cos2 x)k sin x dx

○ Do a U-substitution with u = cos x

● Power of cos x is odd

○ Keep a copy of cos x and convert the rest to sin x using cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x

○ Formula: ∫ sinm x(1 − sin2 x)k cos x dx

○ Do a U-substitution with u = sin x

● Both powers of sin x and cos x are even

○ Convert everything into sin (...x) or cos (...x) using double and half angle formulas:

1 − cos 2x
■ sin2 x =
2

1 + cos 2x
■ cos2 x =
2

sin 2x
■ sin x cos x =
2

Case 2: ∫ tanm x secn x dx

● Power of sec x is even

○ Keep a copy of sec2 x and convert the rest to tan x using sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x

○ Formula: ∫ tanm x(1 + tan2 x)k sec2 x dx

○ Do a U-substitution with u = tan x

● Power of tan x is odd

○ Keep a copy of sec x tan x and convert the rest to sec x using tan2 x = sec2 x − 1

○ Formula: ∫ secn−1 x(sec2 x − 1)k sec x tan x dx

○ Do a U-substitution with u = sec x

Case 3: ∫ cotm x cscn x dx

● Power of csc x is even

○ Keep a copy of csc2 x and convert the rest to cot x using csc2 x = 1 + cot2 x

○ Formula: ∫ cotm x(1 + cot2 x)k csc2 x dx

○ Do a U-substitution with u = cot x

● Power of cot x is odd

○ Keep a copy of csc x cot x and convert the rest to csc x using cot2 x = csc2 x − 1

○ Formula: ∫ cscn−1 x(csc2 x − 1)k csc x cot x dx

○ Do a U-substitution with u = csc x

Case 4: ∫ sin(mx) cos(nx) dx , ∫ sin(mx) sin(nx) dx, ∫ cos(mx) cos(nx) dx

Use the identities

1
● sin A cos B = [sin (A − B ) + sin (A + B )]
2

1
● sin A sin B = [cos (A − B ) − cos (A + B )]
2

1
● cos A cos B = [cos (A − B ) + cos (A + B )]
2

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (4:37)

[Link]
activity_id=70387&activity_type=CourseLesson

8.2.2

Example: Trig Integrals (Case 1)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sin4 x cos3 x dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:39)

[Link]
activity_id=70386&activity_type=CourseLesson

8.2.3

Example: Trig Integrals (Case 1)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sin2 x cos2 x dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:55)

[Link]
activity_id=70388&activity_type=CourseLesson

8.2.4

Example: Trig Integrals (Case 2)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sec8 x tan6 x dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:36)

[Link]
activity_id=70390&activity_type=CourseLesson

8.2.5

Example: Trig Integrals (Case 4)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sin(3x) sin(2x) dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:06)

[Link]
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8.2.6

Example: Trig Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sec x dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:18)

[Link]
activity_id=70391&activity_type=CourseLesson

8.2.7

Practice: Trig Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ cos4 (x) dx

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.2.8

Practice: Trig Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sin7 x dx

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.2.9

Practice: Trig Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sec6 x dx

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.2.10

Practice: Trig Integrals

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ sin(15x) cos(4x) dx

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105318&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.3 Trigonometric Substitution

8.3.1

Trigonometric Substitution
Integrals containing a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 , or x2 − a2 are often complicated to deal with.

Thankfully, we can use our knowledge of trig identities and trig integrals to perform Trig Substitution.

WIZE CONCEPT

Don't do extra work! Remember the following forms don't require substitution:

1 x
∫ dx = arcsin ( )+C
a 2 − x2

1 1 x
∫ dx = arctan ( )+C
a 2 + x2

a a

Trigonometric Substitutions

Expression Substitution Interval Trigonometric Identity

a 2 − x2
x = a sin θ − π2 ≤ θ ≤

π
2

cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ

a 2 + x2

x = a tan θ

− π2 < θ <

π
2

sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ

x2 − a 2
x = a sec θ 0≤θ< π
2

tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1

3π
or π ≤ θ < 2

Note:a is the constant; x is the variable expression (this can be something like x − b).

WATCH OUT!

Sometimes you need to make the integral appear this way. For example, by completing the
square

2
x2 − 4x + 7 =
(x − 2 ) + 3

Steps for Trig Substitutions

1. Identify the expression

○ You may need to adjust it to the correct form

■ bx2 → factor out the b
■ Trinomials → complete the square

2. Substitute for x and dx

3. Use the appropriate trig identity and simplify

4. Compute the integral

5. Back substitute to write the expression in terms of x

○ You may need to draw a triangle and use the Pythagorean Theorem

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:07)

[Link]
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8.3.2

Example: Trig Sub (with Completing the Square)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

∫ x2 − 4x + 2 dx

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (6:48)

[Link]
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8.3.3

Practice: Trig Sub

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

1
∫ dx
x2 4 − x2

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.3.4

Practice: Trig Sub

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

1
∫ dx
(x2 − 6x + 11)2

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.4 Partial Fractions

8.4.1

Partial Fractions Decomposition

Sometimes we have to split up a fraction into multiple parts in order to integrate. This method is call
Partial Fraction Decomposition (PFD).

Strategy

WIZE CONCEPT

Case 1: The denominator only has linear factors

Case 2: The denominator has quadratic factors

Steps For PFD

1. If the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator, do polynomial long

division

2. Factor the denominator fully

3. Rewrite the rational function using the partial fractions decomposition

4. Multiply both side of the equation by the factored denominator and simplify

5. Solve for the constants: A,B,C,....

6. Compute the new integral

WIZE CONCEPT

Remember the following useful integral formulas:

1 1
∫ dx = ln ∣ax + b∣ + C
ax + b

1 1 x
∫ 2 dx = arctan ( )+C
x + a2

a a

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (4:20)

[Link]
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8.4.2

Example: Partial Fraction Decomposition (with long division)

2x3 − 3x + 2
Compute the integral ∫ dx
x3 − x2 − 2x

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (7:30)

[Link]
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8.4.3

Example: Partial Fraction Decomposition (with rationalizing the

denominator)
Evaluate the following indefinite integral

3
∫ dx
x− x+2

WIZE CONCEPT

Sometimes, when we have n

...x..., we can do the following:

1. Let u = n ...x...

2. Then u = ...x... and we can solve for x = ...un ...

3. Find dx = ...du
4. Substitute back into the integral so it's now in terms of u

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (5:21)

[Link]
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8.4.4

Example: Partial Fraction Decomposition (with repeated factors)

Evaluate the following indefinite integral

x4 + x3 + 6x2 + 2x + 4
∫ dx
x(x2 + 2)2

Solution available online

View this lesson online

[Link]
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8.4.5

Practice: Partial Fraction Decomposition

Evaluate the integral

x4 + 1
∫ 2 dx
x +1

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.4.6

Practice: Partial Fraction Decomposition

Compute

3x2 − 1
∫ 4 dx
x + x3

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=105314&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.5 Improper Integrals

8.5.1

Improper Integrals

Identifying Clues

● A definite integral with infinite bound(s)

● A definite integral where the function is discontinuous somehwere on the interval
● The question explicitly states “Find if the integral diverges/what it converges to...”.

Type 1: Infinite Integrals

∞ t
●
∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx

a t→∞ a
a a
∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx
●

−∞ t→−∞ t
∞ 0 b
●
∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx + lim ∫ f (x) dx

a→−∞ b→∞
−∞ a 0

Type 2: Discontinuity at a point

Suppose a <b<c
b t
●
∫ f (x) dx = lim− ∫ f (x) dx

ac t→b ac
∫ f (x) dx = lim+ ∫ f (x) dx
●

b t→b t
c t c
●
∫ f (x) dx = lim− ∫ f (x) dx + lim+ ∫ f (x) dx

a t→b a t→b t

*This type 2 improper integral is harder to spot. Make sure to check for discontinuity when doing
definite integral questions!

Convergence

If the limit exists (finite value), we say that the integral converges to its value.
If the limit does not exist (undefined or infinite), we say that the integral diverges.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:56)

[Link]
activity_id=34946&activity_type=CourseLesson

8.5.2

Practice: Improper Type 1

1
Evaluate ∫ e2x dx, if it converges.

−∞

e2
2

−e2

2
− e2

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62434&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.5.3

Practice: Improper Type 1

∞
Evaluate ∫ xe−x dx.

e−1

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62432&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.5.4

Practice: Improper Type 2

ln 2
Compute ∫ ex
dx.
1−(ex −1)2

π
2

− π2

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.6 Exam-Like Practice Questions

8.6.1

Evaluate ∫ x sec x tan x dx.

x sec x − tanx + C

secx − ln ∣sec x + tan x∣ + C

x sec x − secxtanx + C

x sec x − ln ∣sec x + tan x∣ + C

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=79344&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.2
4 4
Find∫0
xf ′ (x) dx if f (4) = −3 and∫0 f (x) dx = −3

Answer

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.6.3

(ln x)2 dx
e
Evaluate ∫1

Answer

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=24098&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.4

Evaluate∫ arctan( x1 )dx

Answer

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=24842&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.5

Evaluate ∫ x2 e−x dx

Answer

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=85717&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.6

Practice Question
π/4
Compute ∫ sec6 x dx.
0

1
6

2
3

π
3

28
15

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62425&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.7

Practice Question

Find∫ sin(15x) cos(4x) dx.

Use upper case C for any constants

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=75884&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.8

Practice Question

Evaluate∫ sec3 x dx.

WIZE CONCEPT
sec x tan x+ln∣sec x+tan x∣
∫ sec3 x dx =

2

+C
● Rewrite as ∫ sec x (sec2 x) dx

● Then use integration by parts

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.6.9

Practice: Trig Sub

1
x
Evaluate ∫ dx
4 − x2

*You can technically use a u-substitution for this question, but try to use trig sub for additional practice

1
2

5
2

− 3+2

3
2

3 3
3− 2

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=90593&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.10

Practice Question

Find ∫ 1
dx.
x2 −2x−3

(x−1)2 −4
ln +C

(x−1)2 −4
ln x−1
+ +C

2 2

x−1
ln

2

+C
2
x−1 (x−1) −4
ln

+ 2

+C

(x−1)2 −4
ln

2

+C

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.6.11
x
∫ dx.
x2 − 2x + 3

Answer

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=55106&activity_type=QuizQuestion

8.6.12

Set up the partial fraction decomposition; solve for the constants, but do not integrate:

1 − x + 2x2 − x3
∫ dx.
x(x2 + 1)2

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.6.13

Set up the partial fraction decomposition; solve for the constants, but do not integrate:

4x
∫ dx.
x3 − x2 − x + 1

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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8.6.14
x2 − 2x − 3
Find∫ dx
(x 2 − 9 ) (x − 4 )

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
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8.6.15

Use The Trapezoid Rule to approximate

5 1
∫2

x−1 dx

using 4 subintervals

View Solutions on [Link]

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[Link]
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8.6.16
5

Approximate ∫ 1 + x2 dx using the Trapezoidal Rule with n = 8 (answer correct to 2 decimal

1
places).

Answer

View Solutions on [Link]

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8.6.17

Approximate the following using a Simpson's Rule approximation with 6 subintervals.

π
∫0 sin xdx

View Solutions on [Link]

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9. Integration 3: Improper
Integrals (Exam
Weighting: 17-20%)
9.1 Comparison Theorem for Improper
Integrals
9.1.1

Comparison Theorem for Improper Integrals

Common Improper Integrals

∞
1. ∫
1
xp
dx
a

● If p ≤ 1: diverges
● If p > 1: converges

a
2. ∫
1
xp
dx
0

● If p < 1: converges
● If p ≥ 1: diverges

Comparison Theorem

Suppose that f and g are continuous and f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ a.

∞ ∞
a. If ∫ f (x) dx converges, then ∫
g (x) dx converges.

a a
∞ ∞
b. If ∫ g (x) dx diverges, then ∫
f (x) dx diverges.

a a

Notes:

● The theorem only tells you if an improper integral diverges or converges, not the value it
converges to
● Often, we will use the common improper integrals and the Comparison Theorem

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:01)

[Link]
activity_id=34951&activity_type=CourseLesson

9.1.2

Practice: Comparison Test

Determine whether the following improper integral is convergent or divergent:

∞
∫
x
x2 +x dx

It converges

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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9.1.3

Practice: Comparison Theorem

2
Determine whether ∫
arctan x5
x
dx converges or diverges.
0

It converges

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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9.1.4

Practice: Comparison Theorem

1/4
1
Determine if ∫ dx is convergent or divergent.
x2 + x5

It converges

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 4 practice problems on [Link]

10. Differential Equations

(Exam Weighting: 6-9%)
10.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 7: Differential Equations

In past units, we've learned what derivatives are, how to find derivatives using differentiation rules
and techniques, how derivatives are related to integrals, and how to solve integrals using integration
techniques. Now let's dive into a whole area called differentiation equations -- these are pretty much
equations that involve derivatives, and can be used to model real-world problems.

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following concepts and should be able to apply
them to real-world application problems:

1. Model situations using differential equations and verify that a given solution does indeed fit the
differential equation

2. Interpret and know how to sketch slope fields

3. Solving separable differential equations

4. Finding particular solutions using initial conditions (initial value problems)

5. Interpreting and working with differential equations that represent exponential growth and decay

View this lesson online

[Link]
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10.1 Basics of Differential Equations

10.1.1

Differential Equations

Definitions
A Differential Equations (DE) is an equation that relates a function y (x) to some of its derivatives
y ′ , y ′′ , ... and other functions in x.

Examples
Solution available online

● The Order of a DE is the highest order derivative that appears in that DE

● If the DE of the form y ′ = f (y ) (the independent variable doesn't affect the equation), then it is
called autonomous

Some Applicatoins

● Population growth: dP
dt
= kP
● Logistic growth: dP P
dt = kP (1 − M )

2
● Motions of spring: d x2 = − k x
dt m

● Newton's law of heating and cooling: dT

dt
= k (T − Tsurround )

Solutions to a DE
A General Solution to a DE is a solution y = C... that involves a constant C (this represents a whole
family of solutions)

Example
d2 y dy
Show that Ae2x + Be3x is the general solution for the differential equation, dx2
− 5 dx
+ 6y = 0.
Solution available online

An Initial Value Problem (IVP) is a DE problem where a side/initial condition is given. In this case, the
solution we get is a particular/specific solution

Example
Verify that y = 2ex is the particular solution to the DE y ′ = y with y (0) = 2
Solution available online

An Equilibrium Solution is a solution to a DE such that y ′ =0

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (8:01)

[Link]
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10.1.2

Direction Fields/Slope Fields

Sometimes it's helpful to create a graph to show the solutions to a DE -- we sketch short lines
representing the value of the derivative at various points (x, y )

Strategies for Sketching Direction Fields

● Set x = 0 (the y-axis): Figure out what happens to the derivatives as y increases (moves up the
y-axis) or decreases (moves down the y-axis)
● Set y = 0 (the x-axis): Figure out what happens to the derivatives as x increases (moves right
on the x-axis) or decreases (moves left on the x-axis)
● Find out when the derivative is 0--these correspond to horizontal tangent lines
● Find other spcecial values of the derivative

Example
Sketch the direction field for the DE y ′ = x + y , then sketch the particular solution that passes
through (0, 1)

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (4:59)

[Link]
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10.1.3

Practice Question

Match the differential equations with the solution graphs below

A. y′ = ex−y
B. y′ = x + x sin x
y

C. y′ = −2xy

iii

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:

[Link]
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10.2 Separable Differential Equations

10.2.1

Separable (First Order) Differential Equations

Key Identifiers

dy
Separable first order DEs can be put in the form dx = f (x ) ⋅ g (y )

Strategies for Solving Separable DEs

IVP

If an initial condition is given, use it to solve for the unknown constant C.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:49)

[Link]
activity_id=37385&activity_type=CourseLesson

10.2.2

Practice Question

t t2 −1
Solve the DE dP
dt
= P eP
.

P = ln [ ]
(t2 −1)3
+C

(t2 −1)3
P = +C

3et

(t2 −1)3
P = +1+C

3et

1 3
eP P = 3
(t2 − 1) + 1 + C

1 3
eP (P − 1) = 3
(t2 − 1) + C

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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10.2.3

Practice Question

Suppose that we know x2 y ′ = y and y(1) = 1. Determine the equation of y .

y = e−1/x

y = e1−1/x

y = e1−x

y = e−x

y = e − ex /x

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
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10.2.4

Practice Question

Given that dx
dy
= 4x3 (y − 1) and y (0) = 2, find y (1).

e−1

e+1

e+2

2e + 1

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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10.2.5

Practice Question
dy
Given that dx = ey−3x and y (0) = ln 3, find y (ln 2).

Hint: you will need to simplify your answer using ln rules

● r ln x = ln (xr )
● eln x = x

ln 2

ln 4

ln 12

ln 24

ln 48

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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10.2.6

Practice Question
dy 4e5x
Solve dx = y

y = 45 e5x + C

y = 85 e5x + C

2 5x
y=± 5
e +C

4 5x
y=± 5
e +C

8 5x
y=± 5
e +C

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
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10.3 Applications of DE

10.3.1

Exponential Growth and Decay

Any equation that involves an unknown function y and its derivatives dy/dt is called a differential
equation.

Differential Equation for Exponential Growth

This equation states that the rate of change dy/dt of a quantity is proportional to the current value of
that quantity.

dy
= ky

where k is a constant called the proportionality constant (k > 0 for growth, k < 0 for decay). If
y(0) is the value of the function y at time t = 0, the solution becomes

y(t) = y(0)ekt

WIZE TIP

The half-life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time t1/2 it takes the substance to

decay to half of its original size.

ln 2
t1/2 =

Logistic Growth Model

A variant on the Exponential Growth Model is the Logistic Growth Model. This model's growth rate
decreases as the population approaches the carrying capacity.

dP
= kP (M − P )

Where P is the population at time t, M is the carrying capacity, and k is the proportionality constant.

M
P (t) =
1 + Ae(−M k)t

Where A is determined by the initial condition P (0).

WIZE TIP

M
The population growth rate is fastest when the population is equal to .
2

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:06)

[Link]
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10.3.2

Example: Radioactive Decay

A radioactive substance weighs initially 30 grams and decays at a half-life of 10 days. Find the
amount of substance left after 20 days.

Solution available online

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10.3.3

Example: Logistic Growth Model

The growth of a population is given by the logistic differential equation

dP
= 0.02P (58 − P )

with time t measured in years.

a) What is the solution to this differential equation if P (0) = 1?

b) At what population is the fastest growth rate?

Solution available online

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10.3.4

The number of a certain type of bacteria grows exponentially from 100 to 200 in 3 hours. In a
fermentation process, 50 of these bacteria live. After 9 hours, 150 bacteria die due to feed rate
shortage. Approximately how long will it take them to grow from that time to 1410 bacteria?

9.5 hrs

8.5 hrs

7.5 hrs

6.5 hrs

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10.3.5

Practice Question

The growth rate of a certain species of wild cats at time t years is given by dP
dt
= kP . If we know that

the initial population in year 2000 was 500, and that there were double that amount after one and a
half years, what is the population of wild cats in the year 2009?

16000

18000

22000

32000

44000

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10.3.6

Practice Question

A population is modeled by dP dt
= 2.5P (1 − 3500

P
)

a.) What are the equilibrium solutions?

b.) For what values of P is the population increasing?
c.) For what values of P is the population decreasing?

a.) P = 3500
b.) 0 < P < 3500
c.) P > 3500

a.) P = 0 and P = 3500

b.) 0 < P < 3500
c.) P > 3500

a.) P = 3500
b.) P > 3500
c.) 0 < P < 3500

a.) P = 0 and P = 3500

b.) P > 3500
c.) 0 < P < 3500

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10.4 Non-Linear DEs [Coming Soon!]

Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 4 practice problems on [Link]

11. Applications of
Integration (Exam
Weighting: 6-9%)
11.I

AP Calculus Summary - Unit 8: Applications of Integration

Switching gears again, we'll look at a whole array of application problems that involve integration.

By the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the following concepts and should be able to apply
them to real-world application problems:

1. Find and interpret the average value of a function

2. Interpret and solve problems involving position, velocity, speed, and acceleration

3. Interpret and solve problems involving net change and accumulation of change

4. Find the enclosed area between curves

5. Find the volume of a solid that has parallel cross-sections that are basic shapes (square, rectangle,
triangle, semi-circle)

6. Find the volume of a solid generated by rotating a region around a vertical or horizontal line

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11.1 Average Value of a Function

11.1.1

Average Value of a Function

If we could "level out" a function, making it flat, the height would represent the functions average.

Average Value

The average value of a function f (x) on an interval [a, b] is given by

b
1
Average(f (x)) = ∫ f (x)dx
b−a a

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (0:46)

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11.1.2

Example: Average Value

Compute the average value of f (x) = 3x2 + 6x + 3 on the interval [2, 3].

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:51)

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11.1.3
1
Find the average value of the function f (x ) = x2
over the interval
[1, 3].

Answer

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11.2 Distance and Displacement

11.2.1

Distance and Displacement

The area underneath the velocity curve of an object represents its distance traveled. If at some point
the object moves backwards, then its velocity will be negative (subtracting some distance). In such
cases we are measuring displacement - the distance between the initial and final position.

Displacement

If v(t)is the velocity of a particle on the interval [a, b]then the displacement of the particle is given by

b
∫ v(t) dt = displacement

Total Distance

If v(t)is the velocity of a particle on the interval [a, b]then the total distance of the particle is given by

b
∫ ∣v(t)∣ dt = total distance traveled

WATCH OUT!

Displacement is also called net distance; don't mix up net distance and total distance.

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11.2.2

Example: Distance and Displacement

A particle moves along a line so that its velocity at time t is v(t) = t2 − t − 6, in meters per second.
Find the displacement of the particle during the time period 1 ≤ t ≤ 4, and then find the total
distance traveled during this time period.

Solution available online

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11.2.3

Practice: Distance and Displacement

The velocity function, in meters per second, of a particle moving alone a line is given by

v(t) = t2 − 2t − 8

For the time interval 1 ≤ t ≤ 6, find

(a) the displacement of the particle
(b) the distance traveled by the particle

(a) (don't include units)

(b) (don't include units)

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11.2.4

Practice: Displacement
The following graph represents the velocity of a particle in m/s, find the total displacement in meters of
the particle from t=0 to t=5.

(Don't Include Units)

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11.3 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

11.3.1

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Let s(t) be the position of an object at time t where t is in seconds and t ≥ 0. Recall from derivatives
that the velocity of the object at time t is found as

ds
v(t) = s′ (t) =

and the acceleration of the object at time t is found as

dv
a(t) = v ′ (t) = = s′′ (t)

Velocity and Position from Integrals

From what we now know of antiderivatives, this means that we can find velocity and position of the
object given only its acceleration, its initial velocity v0 , and its initial position s0 :

v(t) = v0 + ∫ a(t) dt

s(t) = s0 + ∫ v(t) dt

WIZE CONCEPT

v0 and s0 are the constants of integration (the +C from indefinite integrals).

● Speed is the absolute value of velocity, ∣v(t)∣

● If an object is dropped from rest, its only acceleration is due to gravity, g ≈ 9.8 m/s2

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11.3.2

Example: Position and Velocity

Given that the velocity of a body, starting from the origin, and moving along the x-axis, is v(t) =
9.8t − 5, find the position of the moving body at t = 3.

Solution available online

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11.3.3

Example: Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Suppose a stone is dropped from a 100-m tall cliff. Ignoring air resistance, with what speed will it hit
the ground?

Solution available online

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11.3.4

= 6t − 2 m/s2 and if it
The position of an object is given by s(t). If its acceleration is given by a(t)
starts from s(0) = 1 m with a velocity v(0) = 2 m/s, where will the object be at t = 2?

x(2) =

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11.4 Area Between Curves

11.4.1

Area Between Curves

Definite integrals give us the exact area under the curve of a graph. What about if we wanted to find
the area between curves? The integral of the difference of two functions answers this question.

Area Between Two Curves

If f (x) ≥ g(x) for x in [a, b], then the area above g(x) and below f (x) between x = a and x = b is
given by

b
∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx

WATCH OUT!

If the functions intersect multiple times, it may result in multiple regions that are bounded
between the two curves.

We need to find the point of intersection between the curves, then we may need to break up
the integral into multiple parts to ensure each area added up is positive.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:23)

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11.4.2

Example: Area Between Curves

Find the area enclosed by y = 2x2 + 10 and y = 4x + 16 between x = 0 and x = 5.

Solution available online

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11.4.3

Example: Area Between Curves

Find the area of the shaded region below

Solution available online

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11.4.4

Practice: Area Between Curves

Find the area bounded by the curves y = x2 − x and y = 3x − 3

Answer

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11.5 Volumes (Cross Sections Method)

11.5.1

Volumes - Cross Sections Method

The volume of a solid with parallel cross sections that are perpendicular to the base is given by
x=b y=d
V =∫
A (x) dx or ∫
A (y ) dy
x=a y=c
where A (x) or A (y ) are functions representing the areas of these cross sections.

Example
Write an integral that represents the volume of a cube of side length L

Solution available online

WATCH OUT!

They will typically ask you to find the volume of a solid that does NOT have equally-sized cross
sections, instead, the area of the cross section will usually be based on some function.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:24)

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11.5.2

Practice: Volume Using Cross Sections

Suppose that a solid has a circular base of radius a. The parallel cross sections that are perpendicular
to the base are isosceles triangles where the length of the two identical sides are twice the length of
the base of the triangle. Find the integral representing the volume of this solid.

a
V = ∫ (a2 − x2 )dx

−a

a
a2 − x 2
V =∫ dx
2

−a

a
V =∫ 15 (a2 − x2 ) dx

−a

a
V =∫ y 2 dy
−a

a
V =∫ 3y 2 dy

−a

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11.5.3

Practice: Volumes Using Cross Sections

Find the volume of a cone whose base is a circle with radius R and whose height is h.

Hint: R and h are constants, the only variable you should use is x.

πR2 h2
2

πR2 h

πR2 h
3

2πR2 h
3

3πR2 h
2

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11.6 Volumes of Revolution (Discs &

Washers Method)
11.6.1

Volumes of Revolution by Cross Sections (Washers)

While we commonly use integrals to find area under curves. If we imagine the graph "coming out of
the page" and revolving in 3-D, we can extend our concepts of calculating area to calculating Volumes
of Revolution.

Volumes of Solids by Cross Sections

The volume V of a solid between x = a and x = b having cross-sectional area A(x)is rotated about
the x-axis is

b
V = ∫ A(x)dx

The cross-section of the solid generated in the plane perpendicular to the x-axis.

Volumes of Solids by Washers

If your cross-sectional area is a disk, then the area of that disk will be πr 2 . For a functionf (x)the
cross-sectional area isA(x) = π[f (x)]2 .

For a function f (x), the volume of the solid of revolution obtained by revolving the region between
f (x)and the x-axis between x = a and x = b about the x-axis is given by

b
V = ∫ π[f (x)]2 dx

This formula is useful for revolving about lines parallel to the x-axis.

Volumes Between Curves by Washers

If f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 then the volume of the solid of revolution obtained by revolving the region
between f (x) and g (x) between x = a and x = b about the x-axis is given by

b
V = ∫ π([f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 )dx

More generally, think of the formula as

b
V = ∫ π([outer radius]2 − [inner radius]2 )dx

WATCH OUT!

It may be necessary to compute the points of intersection in order to obtain a and b.

Volumes about the Y-Axis using by Washers

If we'd like to use the Washer method about the y-axis, we need to write our equation as a function of
y.

b
V = ∫ π[g(y)]2 dy

b
V = ∫ π([f (y)]2 − [g(y)]2 )dy

These formulas is useful for revolving about lines parallel to the y-axis.

WIZE CONCEPT

For the method of Washer the variables in the integral should be same of the axis of rotation.
(revolving about the x-axis → use dx, revolving about the y-axis → use dy )

WATCH OUT!

Be careful to consider the inner and outer radii; this depends on the axis of rotation.

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11.6.2

Example: Volumes of Revolution

Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region between x2 + 1 and 3 − x around the x
-axis.

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11.6.3

Example: Volumes of Revolution

Find the volume of a solid ball with radius a .

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11.6.4

Practice: Volumes of Revolution

The volume of the solid that is produced by revolving the region bounded between y = x2 and y =
x about the x-axis.

Your answer should involve π

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11.6.5

Practice: Volumes of Revolution

Write an integral representing the volume of the solid that is produced by revolving the region
bounded between y = x and y = 3x − x2 about the line y = −1. Do not compute the integral.

3
V = π ∫ [3x − x2 + 1]2 − (x + 2)2 dx

2
V = π ∫ [3x − x2 + 1]2 − (x + 1)2 dx

2
V = π ∫ [4x − x2 + 1]2 − (x + 2)2 dx

3
V = π ∫ [4x − x2 + 1]2 − (x + 1)2 dx

None of the above

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11.7 Arc Length

11.7.1

Arc Length
While the distance formula can tell us the length of a straight line, we can use integrals to find the
length of a curve.

Arc Length of a Curve

Let f (x) be a function with continuous derivative function f ′ (x) defined on the interval [a, b]. The
arc length of f (x) is given by

b
L=∫ 1 + [f ′ (x)]2 dx

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11.7.2

Example: Arc Length

Find the length of the curve made by f (x) = − ln(cos x) on [0, π4 ].

Solution available online

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11.7.3

Practice: Arc Length

1
Find the arc length of f (x) = 2
(ex + e−x ) on [0, 1].

Answer

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11.8 Exam-Like Practice Problems

11.8.1
The acceleration due to gravity of an object is given by a (t) = −9.8. If the initial velocity and
displacement are given by v (0) = 5 and d (0) = 2, find the function that represents the
displacement at time t.

d (t) = −4.9t2 + 5t + 2

d (t) = −4.9t2 − 5t + 2

d (t) = −9.8t + 2

d (t) = −9.8t2 + 5t + 2

d (t) = −9.8t2 − 5t + 2

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11.8.2

A train travels at (t + 1) m/s. How far does it travel after 4 seconds?

12 m

20 m

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11.8.3
t x2 π
If the displacement of a particle is given by s (t) = ∫0 sin x dx, then the acceleration at at

t= 2 is

−1

None of the above

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11.8.4

Find the average value of the function g (x) = ax + xa over the interval [2, 3] , where a =
 −1 is a
constant.

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11.8.5

Find the average value of y = x2 over [1, 3] .

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11.8.6

Find the average value of f (x) = sin x on [0, π/2].

Answer

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11.8.7

Find the area of the region bounded between x2 − x + 1 and the line y = 1.

Answer

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11.8.8

Find integral that represents the area enclosed by the curves y = x3 and y = x.

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11.8.9

Find the area bounded by the curves y = −x and y = x2 − 2.

Answer

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11.8.10

Find the area bounded by the curves y = cos x and y = sin x from 0 to π/2. Sketch the area.

Answer

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11.8.11

Find the volume of the solid that is produced by revolving the region bounded between x = 1 + y2 ,
x = 0, y = 1, and y = 2 about the x-axis.

Answer

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11.8.12

Find the volume of the solid that is produced by revolving y= x sin x cos x about the x-axis,

between 0 and π/2.

Answer

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11.8.13

Find the volume of the solid that is produced by revolving the region bounded between y = x2 /4,
y = 0, and x = 2 about the y -axis. Use the method of cylindrical shells.

Answer

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11.8.14

Write the integrals representing the volume of the solid that is produced by revolving the region
bounded between y = tan3 x, y = 1, and x = 0 about the line y = 2 using both the washer method
and the method of cylindrical shells. Do not compute the integrals.

π/4
Washer: V = π∫ (2 − tan3 x)2 − (2 − 1)2 dx

1
Shells: V = 2π ∫ (2 − y) arctan( 3 y )dy

π/4
Washer: V = π∫ (2 + tan3 x)2 − (2 − 1)2 dx

1
Shells: V = 2π ∫ (2 − y) arctan( 3 y )dy

π/4
Washer: V = π∫ (2 + tan3 x)2 − (2 − 1)2 dx

1
Shells: V = 2π ∫ (2 + y) arctan( 3 y )dy

π/4
Washer: V = π∫ (2 − tan3 x)2 − (2 − 1)2 dx

1
Shells: V = 2π ∫ (2 + y) arctan( 3 y )dy

None of the above

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11.8.15

Find the arc length function for the curve y = 2x3/2 with starting point P0 = (0, 0).

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11.8.16

Practice Question
3
Find the arc length function for the curve y = 2x 2 with starting point P0 (0, 3).

Arc length s(x) =

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11.8.17

Find the arc length of y = ex on [0, 1].

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11.8.18

x3 1
Q: Consider the curve y = f (x) = + . Find the arc length of this curve over the interval [1, 3]
3 4x

. Find a function giving the arc length of the curve over the interval [1, x].

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11.8.19

Set up the appropriate integral for determining the surface area of revolution for the following curve: y = x2 , (
0 ≤ x ≤ 2), about the y -axis.

2
2π ∫ x 1 + 4x2 dx.

2
2π ∫ x 1 + 2x2 dx.

2
2π ∫ x 1 + 2x dx.

None of the other options.

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11.8.20

Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the curve

y= 9 − x2

from x = −3 to x = 3 about the x - axis.

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Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 1 practice problem on [Link]

12. Parametric Equations,

Polar Coordinates, &
Vector-Valued Functions
(Exam Weighting: 11-
12%)
12.1 Parametric Equations

12.1.1

Parametric Curves

A Cartesian equation is give by y (x) = ... x ...

A curve/graph can be defiend by points written in the form (x, y (x))-- called rectangular
coordinates

Parametric Equations & Curves

● Parametric equations x(t), y(t) depend on a parameter t

● Parametric curves are defined by points written in the form (x, y ) = (x (t) , y (t))
● If t ∈ [a, b], then (x (a) , y (a)) is called the initial point and (x (b) , y (b)) is called the
terminal point.

Strategies for Graphing in Parametric Curves

1. If possible, rearrange to solve for t in terms of xand substitute this into the y equation
2. Try to plot a few points for nice values of t within the defined interval [a, b]

Example
Sketch the curve of the given parametric equations x = t − 4, y = 3 + t2 , t ∈ R.
Solution available online

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12.1.2

Practice Question

Write the Cartesian equation that corresponds to the parametric equatoins

{x = cos t, y = cos2 t : t ∈ R.}, and state any restrictions on the variables.

y = x2 , x ∈ (−1, 1)

y = x2 , x ∈ [−1, 1]

y = cos (x2 ), y ∈ [−1, 1]

y = cos2 (x) , y ∈ [−1, 1]

y = cos (x2 ), y ∈ (−1, 1)

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12.1.3

Practice Question

Sketch the parametric curve x = 2 cos 3t, y = 2 sin 3t, where t ∈ [0, 2π ].

The curve is a circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 2 that is traversed clockwise for 3 full cycles

The curve is a circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 2 that is traversed counter clockwise for 3 full
cycles

The curve is a circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 3 that is traversed clockwise for 2 full cycles

The curve is a circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 3 that is traversed counter clockwise for 2 full
cycles

None of the above

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12.1.4

Practice Question

Given the graphs a. to c. of x (t) , y (t), match them with the appropriate parametric curves i. to iii. of
{x (t) , y (t)}.

A. i.

B. iii.

C. ii.

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12.2 Calculus w/ Parametric Curves

12.2.1

Tangents of Parametric Curves (Derivatives)

Consider a parametric curve with equations (x (t) , y (t)) for a ≤ t ≤ b.

First Derivative

(a.k.a. slope of the tangent to the curve)

y ′ (t)
dy
dx = x′ (t) if x ′ (t ) 
=0

● Find the derivatives of y and x in terms of t

● Divide the two expressions

Second Derivative

( dx )
( dx )=
d dy
d2 y dy
= d dt

dx2 dx x′ (t)

● Find the derivative of the first derivative dy in terms of t

● Find the derivative of x in terms of t

● Divide the two expressions

The parametric curve has

● A Horizontal Tangent when y ′ (t) = 0 and x′ (t) 

=0
● A Vertical Tangent when x′ (t) = ′
0 and y (t) 
=0

*If both y ′ (t) = 0 and x′ (t) = 0, use L'Hospital's rule

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:28)

[Link]
activity_id=62104&activity_type=CourseLesson

12.2.2

Practice Question
dy
If x and y are described with parametric equations x = sin t + cos tand y = tan t, find dx
at
t=
π/3.

2
1− 3

2
1+2 3

4
2− 3

8
1− 3

8
1+ 3

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12.2.3

Practice: Tangents

Given the parametric curves x = t2 + 1, y = t3 − 3t, t ∈ IR. ,

a.) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point (x, y ) = (5, 2)
b.) Identify all points where the tangent is horizontal
c.) Identify all points where the tangent is vertical

a.) y − 2 = 94 (x − 5)

b.) (2, 2) and (2, −2)

c.) (1, 0) and (−1, 0)

a.) y − 2 = 94 (x − 5)

b.) (2, 2) and (2, −2)

c.) (1, 0)

a.) y − 2 = 14 (x − 5)
b.) (2, 2)
c.) (1, 0)

a.) y − 2 = 14 (x − 5)

b.) (2, 2) and (2, −2)

c.) (1, 0) and (−1, 0)

a.) y − 2 = 15 (x − 5)
b.) (0, 0)
c.) (0, 1)

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12.2.4

Practice Question

Given the cycloid x = 2 (θ − sin θ ) and y = 2 (1 − cos θ), find all points where the slope of the
tangent is horizontal or vertical

Horizontal tangent at points: (2nπ, 4)

Vertical tangent at points: (2nπ, 0)

Horizontal tangent at points: (4nπ, 4)

Vertical tangent at points: (2nπ, 0)

Horizontal tangent at points: (2nπ, 4)

Vertical tangent at points: (4nπ, 0)

Horizontal tangent at points: ((2n + 1) π, 4)

Vertical tangent at points: (4nπ, 0)

Horizontal tangent at points: (2 (2n + 1) π, 4)

Vertical tangent at points: (4nπ, 0)

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12.2.5

Applications of Parametric Curves

Consider the parametric curve defined by {x (t) , y (t) : t ∈ [a, b]} where x′ (t) and y ′ (t) are
continuous on [a, b], and the curve is traversed exactly once on [a, b].

Arc Length

b
L=∫
2 2
[x′ (t)] + [y ′ (t)] dt

Area under the Curve

b
A = ∫ y (t) x′ (t) dt

Surface Area

Obtained by revolving the curve about the x-axis (or al ine parallel to the x-axis):

b
S = ∫ 2πy (t) [x′ (t)]2 + [y ′ (t)]2 dt

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:51)

[Link]
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12.2.6

Practice Question

Write down the integral representing the length of the curve parameterized by x = t3 + t + 1, y =
t2 − 1, from the point (1, -1) to the point (3, 0).

0
∫ 9t4 + 10t2 + 1 dt

−1

1
∫ 9t4 + 10t2 + 1 dt

3
∫ 9t4 + 10t2 + 1 dt

0
∫ 3t2 + 2t + 1 dt

−1

1
∫
3t2 + 2t + 1 dt

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12.2.7

Practice Question

Find the area under the cruve {x = t2 , y = cos t : t ∈ [0, π2 ]}.

π+1

π−2

π
2
+1

π
2
−1

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12.2.8

Practice: Surface Area

Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the curve (x (t) , y (t)) = (2 − t3 , 3t) on t ∈
[0, 2] about the x-axis.

3π
2
[4 17 + ln (4 +
17)]

9π
2
[4 17 + ln (4 +
17)]

9π [4 17 + ln (4 + 17)]

9π [4 17 − ln (4 + 17)]

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12.2.9

Practice Question

Find the integral that represents the area of the surface of revolution obtained by rotating the curve
defined by {x = 6 ln t, y = 3t + 3t : t ∈ [1, e]} about the x-axis.

e
∫ 2π(3t + 3t )

9
t4
+ 18
t2
+ 9 dt

e
∫ 2π(3t + 3t )

6
t
+3− 3
t2
dt
1

e
∫ 2π(3t + 3t )

6
t
−3+ 3
t2
dt
1

e
∫ 2π(6 ln t)

9
t4
+ 18
t2
+ 9 dt

e
∫ 2π(6 ln t)

54
t2

− 9
t4

− 9 dt

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12.3 Polar Coordinates

12.3.1

Polar Coordinates

Every point on the Cartesian plane can be represented by a distance and an angle denoted by (r, θ ):

● r is the distance between the point and the origin

● θ is the angle measured counter-clockwise from the positive x-axis to the line joining the point
and the origin

Convert Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

● x = r cos θ
● y = r sin θ

Convert Cartesian to Polar Coordinates

● r = x2 + y 2

y
● θ = arctan ( x )

Polar Curves

We can graph curves of the form r (θ ) = ...θ... when the interval for θ is given.

Example: Converting Coordinates

a.) Plot the polar points (2, π3 ), (−2, 4π
3
), and (2, 7π
3
)on the Cartesian plane. Then convert them to

Cartesian coordinates.
Solution available online

●
●
●

b.) Convert the Cartesian point (−5, 12) to Polar Coordinates.

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (6:55)

[Link]
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12.3.2

Graphing Polar Curves

We can graph the polar curve r = f (θ) in the Cartesian Plane.

Strategy for Graphing

Set up a chart with nice values of θ (like 0, π4 , 2π 3π

4 , 4 ,

..., 8π
4 ), then calculate the corresponding r

values.

Example

Plot the polar curve r = 2 cos θ

Some Common Polar Curves

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (6:07)

[Link]
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12.3.3

Practice Question

Plot the polar curves r = 1 + sin θ and r = 1 + sin 2θ.

r = 1 + sin θ

r = 1 + sin 2θ

r = 1 + sin θ

r = 1 + sin 2θ

One or more of the graphs in the above options are incorrect

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12.3.4

Practice Question

Convert the equation of the curve x2 + y2 = 3 x2 + y 2 − 4x to polar coordinates.

r = 3 − 4 sin θ

r = 3 + 4 sin θ

r = 3 − 4 cos θ

r = 3 + 4 cos θ

r = 3θ − 4 sin θ

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12.3.5

Practice Question

Match the following graphs with its corresponding polar curve equation.

a.) r = sin 3θ
b.) r = 2 sin2 θ
c.) r = 12 θ

d.) r = 1 − 2 cos θ

A. r = sin 3θ
B. r = 1 − 2 cos θ
C. r = 2 sin2 θ
D. r = 12 θ

ii.

iii.

iv.

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12.4 Calculus w/ Polar Coordinates

12.4.1

Tangents of Polar Curves (Derivatives)

First Derivative

(a.k.a slope of the tangent to the curve)

dr
dy sin θ + r cos θ

y ′ (θ )
= dθ or ′
dr x (θ )

dx
cos θ − r sin θ

dθ
*Recall that y = r sin θ , x = r cos θ

The polar curve has

● A Horizontal Tangent when

○ dr
sin θ + r cos θ or y ′ (θ)

= 0 and
dθ
○ dr
cos θ − r sin θ or x′ (θ) 
=0
dθ
● A Vertical Tangent when
○ dr

cos θ − r sin θ or x′ (θ) = 0 and
dθ
○ dr
sin θ + r cos θ or y ′ (θ) 
=0
dθ
*If both y ′ (θ ) = 0 and x′ (θ) = 0, use L'Hosputal's rule

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:17)

[Link]
activity_id=62125&activity_type=CourseLesson

12.4.2

Practice Question

Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve r = sec2 θ csc θ at θ = π/6.
2
3

3
− 2

3
− 3

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12.4.3

Practice: Tangents

Consider the polar curve r = eθ where θ ∈ [0, 2π ].

a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at θ = π.
b) Find all points at which the tangent line to the curve is horizontal.
c) Find all points at which the tangent line to the curve is vertical.

a.) Slope is 0
b.) θ = π4 , 5π
4

3π 7π
c.) θ = 4 , 4

a.) Slope is 0
b.) θ = 3π4
, 7π4

c.) θ = π4 , 5π

a.) Slope is 1
b.) θ = π4 , 5π
4

c.) θ = 3π
4
, 7π
4

a.) Slope is 1
b.) θ = 3π
4
, 7π
4

π 5π
c.) θ = 4, 4

a.) Slope is 1
b.) θ = π4

c.) θ = 3π
4
, 5π
4
, 7π
4

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12.4.4

Applications of Polar Curves

Consider the polar curve r = r (θ ) where a ≤ θ ≤ b. Suppose that f ′ (θ) is continuous on [a, b] and
the curve is traversed exactly once on [a, b].

Arc Length
b
L=∫
2

(r(θ)) + r′ (θ)2 dθ

Areas Under the Curve

b
A=∫
1 2
2 [r(θ)] dθ

Area Bounded Between Two Polar Curves

2∫
1
A=
[(router )2 − (rinner )2 ] dθ

WIZE TIP

Always graph the curves before using the formula!

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:46)

[Link]
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12.4.5

Practice: Arc Length

Compute the total length of the curve r = 2a cos θ for a > 0 and θ ∈ [0, π ]

2aπ

2a2 π

4aπ

4a2 π

8aπ 2

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12.4.6

Practice: Area Under Polar Curve

Find the area inside r = 1 + sin θ.

2π

3π

3π
2

5π
2

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12.4.7

Practice Question

Write the integral representing the area of the inner loop of r = 2 + 4 sin θ.

5π/6
A = 12 ∫ (4 sin θ)2 dθ

π/6

5π/6
A = 2∫ (4 sin θ)2 dθ

π/6

5π/6
A= 1
2
∫ (2 + 4 sin θ)2 dθ

π/6

11π/6
A = 12 ∫
(2 + 4 sin θ)2 dθ

7π/6

11π/6
A = 2∫ (2 + 4 sin θ)2 dθ

7π/6

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12.4.8

Practice: Area Between Polar Curves

Find the area of the region lying inside the limacon curve of equation r = 1 + 2cosθ, but outside the
circle r = 2.

5 3+π

5 3−π

5 3+π

5 3
2

− π
3

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12.5 Conic Sections [Coming Soon!]

Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 6 practice problems on [Link]

13. Infinite Sequences

and Series (Exam
Weighting: 17-18%)
13.1 Basic Definitions

13.1.1

Sequences

A sequence is just an ordered collection of numbers, a1 ,

a2 , a3 , ...

Common Sequences

● Arithmetic Sequence
○ Starts with a, then adds a constant d to get the next term
○ Example: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13,...
○ The nth term is a + (n − 1)d

● Geometric Sequence
○ Starts with a, then multiply by a ratio r to get the next term
○ Example: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,...
○ The nth term is ar n−1

● Harmonic Sequence
1 1 1
○ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , ...

Sequence Convergence

A sequence {a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an , ...} is said to converge if the terms eventually approach a finite

number. In other words, the sequence converges if lim an = L, where L is a finite number.

n→∞

Otherwise, we say that the sequence diverges.

Examples
1
● The harmonic sequence an = n
converges to 0 because lim an =0
n→∞
● The sequence {cos π, cos 2π, cos 3π, cos 4π, ...} = {−1, 1, −1, 1, ...} diverges because
the terms oscillate back and forth between -1 and 1, it never approaches a certain value (i.e. the
limit does not exist!)

Definitions

● If the terms inside a sequence are always increasing (each term gets bigger and bigger) OR
always decreasing (each term gets smaller and smaller), we call this sequence a monotonic
sequence.
● If a sequence is bounded above by a certain finite number (all the terms are smaller than this
number) AND if the a sequence is bounded below by a certain finite number (all the terms are
bigger than this number), we call this sequence a bounded sequence.

Note-Worthy Theorems

1. Squeeze Theorem for Sequences:

Say we have 3 sequences:{an } , {bn } , {cn }.

Suppose that after a certain points, all the terms in one sequence has values that are sandwiched
between the terms of the other two sequences (i.e. an ≤ bn ≤ cn ). Then if lim an = lim cn = L,

n→∞ n→∞
then lim bn = L. In other words, if the sandwiching sequences converge to the same finite number,

n→∞
the middle sandwiched sequence must also converge to that value.

2. Monotonic Sequence Theorem

Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent

In plain English:
1.) if you can find a number that is bigger than all the terms in your sequence,
2.) if you can find a number that is smaller than all the terms in your sequence, and
3.) the terms inside the sequence are either always getting larger or always getting smaller,
then the sequence will converge to a finite number.

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (7:36)

[Link]
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13.1.2

Series
∞
For a given sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., we define the series to be the formal sum ∑an

n=1

● N
The Nth-partial sum of the series is SN = ∑ an

n=1
● ∞ N
A series ∑an converges if
lim SN = lim ∑an = L (i.e. a finite number)

N →∞ N →∞
n=1 n=1
● The series diverges if this limit does not exist or approaches infinity.

∞ ∞
Note: If ∑an converges, then so does −k ∑an .

n=1 n=1

Common/Known Series (memorize!)

Geometric Series
∞ ∞
∑ar
n−1
or ∑ar n

n=1 n=0

● If ∣r∣ a
< 1: converges to 1−r

● If ∣r ∣ ≥ 1: diverges
P-Series
∞
∑ n1p

n=1

● If p > 1: converges
● If p ≤ 1: diverges
Harmonic Series
∞
∑ n1

n=1

● Diverges always (special case of p-series)

Example
Determine whether the following series converge or diverge:

∞
a.) ∑ 2(0.3)n−1

n=1

Solution available online

∞
b.) ∑ n13

n=1

Solution available online

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (6:56)

[Link]
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13.1.3

Practice: Partial Sums

∞
Suppose that the partial sums of the series ∑an is given by SN = a1 + a2 + ... + aN = 2N −

n=1
1
N +1 .

Determine whether the series converges or diverges.

Converges

Diverges

Cannot be determined

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13.1.4

Practice: Geometric Series

∞
(−1)n 23n
Determine whether the series ∑

9n
converges or diverges.
n=0
If it converges, determine the value of the sum.

Converges to 89

Converges to − 89

8
Converges to 17

9
Converges to 17

Diverges

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13.1.5

Practice: Geometric Series

∞ ∞
Suppose that ∑r converges to 5. Does ∑(r

n
− 1)n converge or diverge?
n=0 n=0
If it converges, what does it converge to?

Converges to 0

Converges to 15

Converges to 56

Converges to 1

Diverges

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13.1.6

Practice Question
p
Write 1.123 as a fraction q .

1120
999

1121
999

1122
999

1123
999

1124
999

View Solutions on [Link]

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13.1.7

How to Test if a Series Converges?

In the next few sections, you will learn about the following tests that are used to determine if a series
converges or diverges:

● Test of divergence
● Integral test
● (Limit/Series) Comparison Test
● Absolute Convergence Test
● Alternating Series Test
● Ratio Test
● Root Test

In many cases, even if we determine that a series converges, we may not know what it converges to.

View this lesson online

[Link]
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13.2 Test of Divergence

13.2.1

Test of Divergence (nth Term Limit Test)

∞
Consider the series ∑ an .

n=1
∞
If lim an 
= 0 (or does not exist), then ∑ an diverges.

n→∞ n=1

Identifying Clues

● the terms an get larger

● the terms an oscillate back and forth

WATCH OUT!

BE CAREFUL!
∞
If lim an = 0, it does NOT mean that ∑ an converges!

n→∞ n=1

Counter example:
∞
The harmonic series ∑ n1 :

n=1
The limit of the terms lim 1 = 0, but it is known that the harmonic series does NOT converge.
n→∞ n

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:58)

[Link]
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13.2.2

Practice Question
∞
Determine if the series ∑ n sin n1 converges or not.

n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

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13.2.3

Practice Quesetion
∞
Determine whether the series ∑ n 2n
3
+5n−1
3 −7 converges or diverges.

n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

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13.2.4

Practice Question

Does the series {1, −1, 1, 2, −2, 1, 2, 3, −3, 1, 2, 3, 4, −4, ...} converge or diverge?

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

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13.2.5

Practice Question
∞
Determine whether the series ∑ (n+1)5 converges or diverges.
(−2)n

n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

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13.3 Integral Test

13.3.1

Integral Test
∞
Consider the series ∑ an , where an is a sequence of positive terms.

n=N
Let f (n) = an and assume that f is continuous, positive and decreasing.

Then

∞ ∞
1. ∫ f (x) dx converges if and only if ∑ an converges.

N n=N

∞ ∞
2. ∫ f (x) dx diverges if and only if ∑ an diverges.

N n=N

Identifying Clues

● The terms an look integrable

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:25)

[Link]
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13.3.2
∞
3n
Determine whether ∑

e n2
converges or diverges.
n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

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13.3.3

Practice Question
∞
ln n
Determine whether ∑

n
converges or diverges.
n=3

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

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[Link]
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13.4 Comparison Tests

13.4.1

Comparison Tests
∞ ∞
Consider the two series ∑ an and ∑ bn with non-negative terms.

n=1 n=1

Series Comparison Test

If an ≤ bn after a certain point, then

∞ ∞
●
if ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an converges

n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
●
if ∑ an diverges, then ∑ bn diverges.

n=1 n=1

Limit Comparison Test

Assume that all the terms an and bn are positive after a certain point.

∞ ∞
● an
If lim

= k > 0, then ether ∑ an and ∑ bn both converge or both diverge

n→∞ bn

n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
●
If lim ab n = 0, then if ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an must also converge

n→∞ n

n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
●
If lim an

= ∞ , then if ∑ bn diverges, then ∑ an must also diverge.

n→∞ bn

n=1 n=1

Identifying Clues

● The series looks like a p-series, geometric, or harmonic

● They give you another series in the question that looks similar to the series in question, and tell
you whether that series converges or diverges

Some useful tricks:

● ln n > 1 for n ≥ 3
● ln n < 1 for n < 3
1 1 1 1
● +big term < +small term and

−big term
> −small term

● −1 ≤ sin n, cos n ≤ 1
● − π2 < arctan n < π2

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (4:56)

[Link]
activity_id=62071&activity_type=CourseLesson

13.4.2

Practice: Limit Comparison Test

∞
Determine whether the series ∑ n+2 n converges or diverges.

n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62358&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.4.3

Practice: Limit Comparison Test

∞
n+ 3 n
Determine if the series ∑

n2 +n3

converges or diverges.
n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62012&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.4.4

Practice Question
∞
Determine whether the series ∑ − n22−1 converges or diverges.

n=2
If it converges, find the value it converges to.

It converges to 12

It converges to 1

It converges to − 32

It converges to 32

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95275&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.4.5

Practice: Series Comparison Test

∞ n
e
Determine whether the series ∑

(3n)2

converges or diverges.

n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62010&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.4.6

Practice: Series Comparison Test

∞
Determine if the series ∑ sin
n3
n
converges or diverges.

n=1

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62353&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.4.7

Practice Question
∞
Determine whether the series ∑ ( n+1
5
− 5
n+2
) converges or diverges.
n=1
If it converges, find the value it converges to.

It converges to − 12

It converges to 12

It converges to 32

It converges to 52

It diverges

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95278&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.5 Absolute Convergence & Alternating

Series Test
13.5.1

Absolute Convergence Test

∞ ∞
Note: If ∑ ∣an ∣ converges, then ∑ an converges.

n=1 n=1

WIZE CONCEPT

Definitions:

∞ ∞
●
We say that a series, ∑ an is absolutely convergent if the series ∑ ∣an ∣ converges

n=1 n=1
∞
●
We say that a series, ∑ an is conditionally convergent if it converges but is not absolutely

n=1
convergent

*If the terms in the series are all positive, we don't have to make this distinction.

Absolute Convergence Test

∞
If it is easier to work with ∣an ∣, then determine whether
∑ ∣an ∣ converges.

n=1
∞
If it does converge, then the original series ∑ an must also converge.

n=1

Identifying Clues

● If the series involves negative and positive terms

● The question will ask specifically for "absolute convergence", "conditional convergence", or
divergence

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:48)

[Link]
activity_id=34160&activity_type=CourseLesson

13.5.2

Example: Absolute Convergence Test

Determine whether the following series are absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or
divergent:

∞
(−1)n
a.) ∑

n=1

∞
b.) ∑ (−2)n

n=0

∞
(−1)n
c.) ∑

3 5

n
n=1

a.) converges conditionally

b.) diverges
c.) converges conditionally

a.) converges absolutely

b.) diverges
c.) converges absolutely

a.) converges conditionally

b.) diverges
c.) converges absolutely

a.) converges absolutely

b.) converges absolutely
c.) converges conditionally

a.) diverges
b.) diverges
c.) converges absolutely

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95285&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.5.3

Alternating Series Test

∞ ∞
Consider a series with terms that have alternating signs ∑ an = ∑ (−1)n+1 bn ,

n=1 n=1
where the terms bn are positive.

● If bn+1 ≤ bn (the terms do not increase) after a certain point and

● If lim bn = 0

n→∞

Then the series converges.

Identifying Clues:

● The terms have alternating signs

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:47)

[Link]
activity_id=34155&activity_type=CourseLesson

13.5.4

Practice: AST
∞ 2
Is the series ∑ (−1)n+1 n3n+3 convergent or divergent?

n=2

Converges conditionally

Converges absolutely

Diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95279&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.6 Ratio Test

13.6.1

Ratio Test
∞
Consider a series ∑ an .

n=1
∞
● a
If lim ∣ an+1 ∣ < 1, then ∑ an converges (infact, it converges absolutely)

n→∞ n

n=1
∞
●
If lim ∣ aan+1

n
∣ > 1, then ∑ an diverges

n→∞

n=1
● If lim ∣ aan+1

n
∣ = 1, then the test fails and we don't know whether the series converges or not

n→∞

Identifying Clues

● the terms look like a ratio of two functions (rational function)

● the terms contain factorials(!) or powers

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (2:00)

[Link]
activity_id=34145&activity_type=CourseLesson

13.6.2

Practice Question
∞
(n2 )!
Determine whether ∑

nn
converges or diverges.
n=1

It converges conditionally

It converges absolutely

It diverges

Cannot be determined with our known tests

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95286&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.6.3

Practice Question
∞
Determine whether the series ∑ n!
1
converges or diverges.

n=1

It converges conditionally

It converges absolutely

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95281&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.6.4

Practice Question
∞
The series ∑an has terms that are defined recursively by a1 = 1 and an = 2 n3 −1

⋅ an−1 .
4+n3

n=1
Determine whether the series converges or diverges.

It converges

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=62362&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.7 Root Test

13.7.1

Root Test
∞
Consider a series ∑ an .

n=1

● ∞
If lim
n
∣an ∣ < 1, then ∑ an converges (in fact it converges absolutely)

n→∞ n=1
● ∞
If lim
n
∣an ∣ > 1, then ∑ an diverges

n→∞ n=1
● If lim
n
∣an ∣ = 1, then the test fails and we don't know if the series converges or not

n→∞

Identifying Clues

● The terms involve powers which are cancelled out by an nth root ( n ...)

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:07)

[Link]
activity_id=34150&activity_type=CourseLesson

13.7.2

Practice Question
∞
32n−1
Determine whether ∑

nn
converges or diverges.
n=1

It converges absolutely

It converges conditionally

It diverges

Cannot be determined using our known tests

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95287&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.7.3

Practice Question
∞
Detemine whether the series ∑ (ln n)n converges absolutely, converges conditionally, or diverges.
(−1)n

n=2

It converges absolutely

It converges conditionally

It diverges

Cannot be determined

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95282&activity_type=QuizQuestion

13.8 Which Convergence Test to Use?

13.8.1

How to Pick Which Convergence Test to Use?

Try these in order:

1. Try simplifying the terms an if possible.

2. Determine whether you have a common series

● Geometric: ∑ar n−1

● P-series: ∑ 1p
n

● Harmonic series: ∑ 1 (special p-series where p=1)

3. Try the Test of Divergence (quickly check if lim an 

= 0)

n→∞

4. If an is a polynomial or rational function, try the Series Comparison Test or Limit Comparison Test

● Compare it to a p-series (pick p by dividing the highest degree term in the numerator by the
highest degree term in the denominator)
● Sometimes you might compare it to a geometric series

5. If an involves some form of (−1)n , the question might ask for absolute/conditional convergence. Try

● Alternating Series Test (quickly check if bn+1 ≤ bn and lim bn = 0)

n→∞

6. If the terms involve factorials or powers, try Ratio Test

7. If the terms look like f (n)g(n) , try the Root Test

8. If an looks like a function that can be integrated, try the integral test (check if the term function is

positive, continous, and decreasing)

What if the question asks us to find the value the series converges to?

∞
●
Try to rewrite it into a geometric series (we know that ∑ar n−1 = a
1−r
)

n=1
● Try to expand out a few terms, you might get a telescoping sum (the middle terms all cancel out)
● If it's a rational function that converges, try using partial fraction decomposition and then see if
it's a telescoping sum

*This might also be a power series question

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (5:48)

[Link]
activity_id=34164&activity_type=CourseLesson

Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 13 practice problems on [Link]

14. Power Series

14.1 Power Series

14.1.1

Definitions of Power Series

Power Series
∞
∑ cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ...

n=0
where x is a variable,a is a constant, and the terms cn are coefficients.

*We say that this is a power series "centered at x = a" or "about x = a"
Note: unlike a normal series that only have n, power series depend on the variable x.

Special Case of Power Series

If the power series is centered at x =0

∞
∑ cn xn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ...

n=0

Radius of Convergence

The convergence of the power series might depend on the value of x.

The radius of convergence is denoted by a positive value R, and it helps give a range/interval for x on
which the power series converges.

There are three cases for a power series about x = a:

1. The series converges if ∣x∣ < R but diverges if ∣x∣ > R.

*Note that when x = ±R, whether the series converge depends on the series itself
*So, the possible intervals of convergence are

2. The series converged for all values of x (i.e. R = ∞)

3. The series only converges for x = a (i.e. R = 0)

How to find the Radius/Interval of Convergence?

1. Use the Ratio test or Root test on cn (x − a)n to determine the radius of convergence R

2. If R is a finite number (=
 0 or ∞) , we will have to check the convergence on both endpoints x =
R, x = −R to see if we should include them in the interval of convergence.
*Use convergence tests from the previous chapter to see if the series converges at these point

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (8:53)

[Link]
activity_id=34848&activity_type=CourseLesson

14.1.2

Practice: Radius of Convergence

∞
Determine the radius of convergence of the power series ∑n! xn .

n=0

R=0

R=1

R=2

1
R= 2

R=∞

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95288&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.1.3

Practice: Radius & Interval of Convergence

∞
Determine the radius and interval of convergence of the power series ∑ n+1
(−2)n n

(x + 1 ) .
n=0

1
R= 2

Interval of convergence is [− 32 , − 12 ]

1
R= 2

Interval of convergence is (− 32 , − 12 ]

1
R= 2

Interval of convergence is [− 32 , − 12 )

R=1
Interval of convergence is [− 32 , − 12 ]

R=1
Interval of convergence is (− 32 , 12 )

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95289&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.1.4

Practice: Radius & Interval of Convergence

∞
Determine the radius and interval of convergence of the power series ∑ 3n n
(−1)n
xn .
n=1

R=3
Interval of convergence is (−3, 3)

R=3
Interval of convergence is (−3, 3]

R=3
Interval of convergence is [0, 3)

R=1
Interval of convergence is (−1, 1)

R=1
Interval of convergence is [−1, 1]

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95290&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.2 Functions and Power Series

14.2.1

Representing Functions as Power Series

We can rewrite certain functions as power series.

Recall
∞
Geometric Series: ∑ar n = a
1−r
when
∣r∣ < 1
n=0

Rewriting Functions as Power Series

∞
We can rewrite 1−u1(x) as ∑ [u (x)] when ∣u(x)∣ < 1
n

n=0

*Sometimes we'll need to use partial fraction decomposition to rewrite our function into geometric
series form

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (1:36)

[Link]
activity_id=62090&activity_type=CourseLesson

14.2.2

Practice: Power Series Representation

1
Find a power series representation of f (x) = x2 +4
and determine the radius of convergece.

∞
n
f (x) = ∑ (− x4 )
2

n=0
R=1
Interval of convergence: (−2, 2)

∞
n
f (x) = 1
4
∑ ( − x2
4
)

n=0
R=2
Interval of convergence: (−2, 2)

∞
n
f (x) = 1
4
∑ ( x2
4
)

n=0
R=2
Interval of convergence: (−2, 2)

∞
n
f (x) = 4∑ (− x4 )
2

n=0
R=4
Interval of convergence: (−2, 2]

∞
n
f (x) = 4∑ ( x4 )
2

n=0
R=4
Interval of convergence: [−2, 2)

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95291&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.2.3

Practice: Power Series Representation

2x−1
Find a power series represetnation of f (x) = 1−x2
and determine the radius of convergece.

∞
f (x) = ∑ [ 12 + ] xn ; Radius of convergence is R =
n
3(−1) 1
2 2

n=0

∞
f (x) = ∑ [ 12 −
3(−1)n
2
] xn ; Radius of convergence is
R=1
n=0

∞
f (x) = ∑ [ 2 ] x ; Radius of convergence is
3(−1)n n

R=1
n=0

∞
f (x) = ∑ [ 32 −
3(−1)n
2
] xn ; Radius of convergence is
R= 1
2

n=0

∞
f (x) = ∑ [ 32 +
3(−1)n
2
] xn ; Radius of convergence is
R=1
n=0

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95292&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.2.4

Practice Question
7
Find a power series representation of f (x ) = x2 +x−12
and determine the radius of convergence.

∞
f (x) = ∑ [− 3n+1 ] xn
n
1 (−1)
−

4n+1

n=0
R=3
Interval of convergence: [−3, 3]

∞
f (x) = ∑ [− 3n+1 ] xn
n
1 (−1)
−

4n+1

n=0
R=3
Interval of convergence: (−3, 3)

∞
f (x) = ∑ [− 3n+1
1
−
(−1)n
4n+1
] xn

n=0
R=4
Interval of convergence: [−4, 4]

∞
f (x) = ∑ [− 3n+1
1
−
(−1)n
4n+1
] xn

n=0
R=0
x=0
∞
f (x) = ∑ [− 3n+1
1
−
(−1)n
4n+1
] xn

n=0
R=4
Interval of convergence: (−4, 4)

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95300&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.2.5

Differentiation and Integration of Power Series

If the radius of convergence of a power seires is R > 0, we can differentiate and integrate the terms
in the power series
∞
f (x) = ∑cn (x − a) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) + c3 (x − a) + ...
n 2 3

n=0

Differentiate

∞ ′ ∞
[ ∑ c n (x − a ) ] = ∑ n c n (x − a )
n
n−1

n=0 n=1

Integrate

∞ ∞
∫ ∑cn (x − a) dx = C + ∑ n+1
cn n n+1

(x − a )

n=0 n=0

*The radius of convergence will remain the same R.

When will we need to do this?

If f (x) can't be rewritten in geometric series form, but f ′ (x) can.

1. Differentiate the function
2. Write out the power series representation using the new geometric series forms
3. Integrate this new power series to get the power series for f (x)

If f (x) can't be rewritten in geometric series form, but ∫ f (x) dx can.

1. Integrate the function
2. Write out the power series representation using the new geometric series forms

3. Differentiate this new power series to get the power series for f (x)

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (3:25)

[Link]
activity_id=34845&activity_type=CourseLesson

14.2.6

Practice: Power Series Representation

1
Find a power series represetnation of f (x) = (1−x)3
and determine the radius of convergence.

∞
f (x) = 1
2
∑(n − 1)xn−2
n=2
R=1
∞
f (x) = ∑(n)xn−2

n=2
R=0
∞
f (x) = 1
2
∑(n)(n − 1)xn−2
n=2
R=1
∞
f (x) = 2∑(n)(n − 1)xn+2

n=2
R=1
∞
f (x) = 2∑(n − 1)xn+2

n=2
R=2

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95293&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.2.7

Practice: Power Series Representation

Find a power series represenetation of f (x) = ln (1 + x2 ) and determine the radius of convergene.

∞
f (x) = C + ∑(−1)n x n
2n+2

n=0
R=0
∞
f (x) = C + ∑ x n
2n+2

n=0
R=1
∞
f (x) = C + ∑ xn+1
2n+2

n=0
R=1
∞
f (x) = C + ∑(−1)n xn+1
2n+2

n=0
R=0

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95301&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.2.8

Practice: Power Series Representation

Find a power series represetnation of f (x) = x arctan x2 and determine the radius of convergece.
∞
f (x) = x + ∑ [(2(−1)n (4n+3) ) ( 4n+2
4n+3
1

x
+ 1)]

n=0
R=1
∞
f (x) = x + ∑ [(2(−1)n (4n+3) )]
4n+3
x

n=0
R=1

∞
f (x) = C + 2x + ∑ [((−1)n (4n+5) ) ( 4n+2
4n+5
x 1
+ 1)]

n=0
R=0
∞
f (x) = D + Cx + ∑ [(2(−1)n (4n+3) )]
4n+3
x

n=0
R=0
∞
f (x) = D + Cx + ∑ [(2(−1)n (4n+3) ) ( 4n+2
4n+3
1
x
+ 1)]

n=0
R=1

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=95294&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.3 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

14.3.1

Talor and Maclaurin Series

∞
1
f (x) = ∑ [u (x)] .
n
Recall that we can rewrite functions of the form f (x ) = 1−u(x) as power series

n=0
It turns out that there's a whole group of special functions that can also be rewritten as power series.

Taylor Series

Let f (x) be a function whose derivatives are defined on an interval containing the value x = a.
∞
f (n) (a)
The Taylor Series of f (x) about x = a can be written as f (x) = ∑

n! (x
− a)n
n=0
′ f ′′ (a) 2 f ′′′ (a)
Expanding: f (x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a) + 2!
(x − a) + 3!
(x − a)3 ....

Identifying Clue

If the question asks you to find the Taylor Series Representation of a function centered at x=a
*Usually it'll say "using the definition..."

Steps

1. Find the first few derivatives of the function

2. Substitute x = a into all these derivatives--These are now your coefficient!

*We need to spot a pattern between these numbers

3. Write out the power series representation using the formula

If the question also asks for the Radius or Interval of Convergence --> use the ratio or root test!

Taylor Polynomial of Order N

If we only take the first N terms of a Taylor series (i.e. the Nth partial sum), this is called the Taylor
Polynomial of order N:
N
f (n) (a)
PN (x) = ∑ n! (x − a)n .

n=0
It can be computed if the function f (x) has at least N derivatives on an interval containing x = a.

Maclaurin Series

The specific case where a = 0 is called the Maclaurin Series of f (x):

∞
f (n) (0) n f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3
f (x) = ∑

n!
x = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + 2!
x + 3!
x ....
n=0

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (5:54)

[Link]
activity_id=37369&activity_type=CourseLesson

14.3.2

Practice Question
1
Find the Taylor series representation for f (x) = 1+2x
about
c = −2. Then, state the radius of
convergence.

∞
2n
f (x) = −∑ n+1 (x + 2)n
3

n=0
1
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n
f (x) = −∑ n+1 (x + 2)n
3

n=0
3
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n
f (x) = ∑ (x + 2)n
3n

n=0
1
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n
f (x) = ∑ n (x + 2)n
3

n=0
3
Radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
2n + 1
f (x) = −∑ n+1 (x + 2)n
3

n=0
Radius of convergence is R = 12

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=63804&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.3.3

Common/Known Maclaurin Series

Here is a list of Maclaurin series representations of common functions

Identifying Clues

● The question asks you to find the Maclaurin series of a function and doesn't say anything about
"using the definition"
○ The function can be a slight modification of a function in the above table
○ The function can be a product or quotient of function types in the above table
● You are asked to find what a series converges to
○ The given series is not a power series but its convergence cannot be found using our regular
series knowledge
○ Recognize the given series as one of the ones in this table and determine the corresponding x
value needed

Watch the video tutorial for this lesson (5:01)

[Link]
activity_id=37389&activity_type=CourseLesson

14.3.4

Practice Question

Express x cos 2x as a power series. For what x is the series valid?

∞
4n 2n+1
∑ x
(2n)!

n=0
Valid for x = 0

∞
4n 2n+1
∑ x
(2n)!

n=0
Valid for x ∈ (−∞, ∞)

∞
4n 2n
∑ x
(2n)!

n=0
Valid for x ∈ (−∞, ∞)

∞
(−4)n 2n+1
∑ x
(2n)!

n=0
Valid for x = 0

∞
(−4)n 2n+1
∑ x
(2n)!

n=0
Valid for x ∈ (−∞, ∞)

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=63798&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.3.5

Practice Question
2
Express x3 ln(1 − x4 ) as a power series. Then, state the first 3 non-zero terms and the radius of
convergence.

∞
−1
The power series: ∑ n x2n+3
4 n

n=1
1 5 1 1 9
The first 3 non-zero terms: − x − x7 − x + ...
4 32 192

The radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
(−1)n 2n+3
The power series: ∑ x
4nn

n=1
1 5 1 7 1 9
The first 3 non-zero terms: − x + x − x + ...
4 32 192

The radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
(−1)n 2n+3
The power series: ∑ x
4n

n=1
1 5 1 7 1
The first 3 non-zero terms: − x − x − x9 + ...
4 16 64

The radius of convergence is R = 2

∞
−1
The power series: ∑ n x2n+1
4 n

n=1
1 3 1 1 7
The first 3 non-zero terms: − x − x5 − x + ...
4 32 192

The radius of convergence is R = 2

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=63799&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.3.6

Practice Question

f (x) = ∫ ex dx.
2
Find the Maclaurin series for

∞
1
C +∑ x2n+1
(2n + 1)n!

n=0

∞
1
C −∑ x2n+1
(2n + 1)n!

n=0

∞
1
C −∑ x2n−1
(2n − 1)n!

n=0

∞
1
∑ x2n
(2n)n!

n=0

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=63801&activity_type=QuizQuestion

14.3.7

Practice Question

Evaluate the series 1 − 13 + 1

5
− 1
7
+ 1
9
− 1
11
+ ....

eπ

ln(π)

arctan(1)

sin ( π4 )

sin(1)

View Solutions on [Link]

Solutions to these questions, as well as step-by-step breakdowns of the answers at:
[Link]
activity_id=63786&activity_type=QuizQuestion

Checkpoint Quiz
Check out 10 practice problems on [Link]

Find this, and much, much more on

[Link]

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