Alternating current introduction

Here’s a detailed note with key words for Class 12 Physics – Chapter 7:
Alternating Current (Section 7.1 & 7.2).

📘 Detailed Notes: Alternating Current

🔹 Section 7.1 Introduction
Direct Current (DC):
Current does not change direction with time.
Produced by batteries, cells, dc generators.
Alternating Current (AC):
Voltage & current vary sinusoidally with time.
Represented as:
v(t) = vm sin ωt
​

i(t) = im sin ωt
​

Household supply: AC voltage (India: 220 V, 50 Hz).

Why AC preferred over DC?
Transformers → easy conversion of voltage levels.
Economical transmission over long distances.
Useful in devices (radio tuning, electric machines, etc.).
Key Contributor:
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943):
Invented induction motor, polyphase system, Tesla coil.
Conceived rotating magnetic field (basis of AC machinery).
SI unit of magnetic field = Tesla (T).

🔹 Section 7.2 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor

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 AC source connected to resistor (R):
Voltage across resistor:

v(t) = vm sin ωt (7.1) ​

Current through resistor:

i(t) = im sin ωt (7.2)​

vm
where im = (Ohm’s law in AC).
​

R
​ ​

Phase Relation:
In a pure resistor, voltage and current are in phase (reach max,
min, and zero together).
Average current over cycle:
Average(i) = 0
But power is not zero (due to i2 R).

🔹 Power in AC Circuit (Resistor only)

Instantaneous Power:

p(t) = i2 R = i2m R sin2 ωt (7.4)

​

Average Power over one cycle:

12
Pavg = i R (7.5c)
2m
​ ​ ​

Root Mean Square (rms) current:

Defined to make AC power comparable to DC power.

im
Irms =
​

2
​ ​

Similarly,

vm
Vrms =
​

2
​ ​

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 Effective Power:

2
P = Irms R = Vrms Irms
​ ​ ​

🔑 Key Words / Formulas

DC vs AC → constant vs sinusoidal.
Equation of AC Voltage: v(t) = vm sin ωt. ​

Equation of AC Current (Resistor): i(t) = im sin ωt. ​

Amplitude (Peak Value): vm , im . ​ ​

Angular frequency: ω = 2πf .

Phase relation: Voltage and current in phase in resistor.
Power formulas:
Instantaneous: p(t) = i2 R .
Average: Pavg ​ = 12 i2m R.
​ ​

RMS values:
im
Irms =
​

2
​ ​

vm
​

Vrms = .
​

2
​ ​

👉 Do you want me to also make memory tricks + quick flowchart/diagram-

based notes for faster revision, like I did for earlier physics chapters?

Perfect 👍 You’ve now reached rms values, phasor representation, and AC

through an inductor. Let’s break this into detailed notes with key words for
Sections 7.2 (continuation), 7.3, and 7.4 of Class 12 Physics.

📘 Detailed Notes: Alternating Current

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🔹 Continuation of 7.2 – RMS Values & Power
RMS (root mean square) current:

im
I= = 0.707 im (7.6)
​

2
​ ​

RMS voltage:
vm
V = = 0.707 vm (7.8)
​

2
​ ​

Power in terms of RMS values:

V2
2
P =I R=VI = (7.7), (7.9)
R
​

Household example:
Line voltage = 220 V (rms).
Peak voltage vm ​
= 2 × 220 ≈ 311 V.
​

Interpretation:
Irms = equivalent dc current → gives same power loss as ac.
​

Thus RMS values are standard in measurements.

🔹 7.3 Representation by Rotating Vectors (Phasors)

Phasor:
A rotating vector representing a sinusoidal quantity (voltage or
current).
Rotates with angular speed ω .
Projection on vertical axis gives instantaneous value.
Magnitude of phasor → peak value (vm , im ). ​ ​

Case of Resistor:
Voltage & current phasors are in same direction.

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 Phase angle ϕ = 0 → v and i in phase.
Key Advantage:
Phasors make it easy to add/subtract ac voltages & currents (like
vectors).

🔹 7.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor

Circuit: Pure inductor connected to ac source.
Applied voltage:

v(t) = vm sin ωt (7.1)

​

Induced emf (Lenz’s law):

di
v=L (7.10)
dt
​

Current (after solving):

π
i(t) = im sin (ωt − ) (7.12)
2
​ ​

Amplitude of current:

vm
im = (7.14)
​

ωL
​ ​

Inductive Reactance (XL ): ​

XL = ωL (7.13)
​

Analogous to resistance, unit = ohm (Ω).

Current decreases with higher L or higher frequency (f ).
Phase Relation:
In an inductor, current lags voltage by 90° (π/2).
Voltage leads current.
Power in Inductor:

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 Instantaneous power:

π
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = vm sin ωt ⋅ im sin (ωt − )
2
​ ​ ​

→ simplifies to oscillating term.

Average power over one cycle = 0.
⇒ Inductor does not dissipate energy, only stores & releases it.

🔑 Key Words / Formulas Recap

RMS values:
im vm
I= ,V = .
​ ​

2 2
​ ​

​ ​

Power (Resistor): P = I 2 R = V I .
Phasor: rotating vector, helps show phase difference.
Inductor:
XL = ωL (inductive reactance).
​

im = vm /XL .
​ ​ ​

Current lags voltage by 90°.

Average power Pavg ​ = 0.

👉 Do you want me to continue making similar structured notes with key

words for the next part (AC with Capacitor + LCR circuit), so the whole chapter
is in this easy breakdown style?

Great 👍 You’ve now brought in the purely capacitive AC circuit part (Section
7.5). Let me turn this into detailed notes with key words, just like we did for
resistor and inductor.

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📘 Detailed Notes: Alternating Current
🔹 7.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor
🌀 Behaviour in DC vs AC
DC circuit:
Current flows only while charging.
Once capacitor is fully charged → current stops.
AC circuit:
Capacitor is continuously charged & discharged.
Current flows throughout, alternating with voltage.

📐 Equations
1. Voltage across capacitor:

q
v= (7.15)
C
​

2. Current:

dq dv
i= =C = ωCvm cos ωt
dt dt
​ ​ ​

π
Using identity cos ωt = sin (ωt + ),
2
​

π
i(t) = im sin (ωt + ) (7.16)
2
​ ​

3. Current amplitude:

im = ωCvm
​ ​

or

vm
im = (7.18)
​

XC
​ ​

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 4. Capacitive Reactance:

1
XC = (7.17)
ωC
​ ​

Acts like resistance in capacitor circuit.

Unit: ohm (Ω).
1 1
Inverse relation: XC ∝ , XC ∝ .
C f
​ ​ ​ ​

⏱️ Phase Relation
Inductor: Current lags voltage by π/2.
Capacitor: Current leads voltage by π/2.
Reason: Current depends on rate of change of voltage.
Phasor diagram:
Current phasor I is ahead of voltage phasor V by 90∘ .
Time graph: Current reaches max earlier than voltage.

⚡ Power in Capacitor
Instantaneous power:

pc = iv = im vm cos ωt sin ωt
​ ​ ​

im vm
pc = sin(2ω t) (7.19)
​ ​

2
​ ​

Average power over one complete cycle:

Pavg = 0 ​

Conclusion:
Capacitor does not consume energy, only stores & releases it.
Same as inductor case.

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🔑 Key Words / Formulas
1
Capacitive reactance: XC =.
ωC
​ ​

Current amplitude: im = vm /XC .

​ ​ ​

Phase: Current leads voltage by π/2.

Average power: Zero.
Comparison:
Resistor: v & i in phase, power > 0.
Inductor: Current lags voltage by 90°, power = 0.
Capacitor: Current leads voltage by 90°, power = 0.

✅ Now resistor, inductor, and capacitor cases are covered separately with
clear differences.

👉 Do you want me to now move to the combined RLC circuit (Section 7.6)
and make similar structured notes (phasor diagram + impedance +
resonance)?

Perfect — you’ve just pasted Section 7.6: AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR
Circuit (NCERT Class 12 Physics, Ch. 7 Alternating Current). Let’s break it into
easy memory-trick notes so you don’t get lost in the math-heavy parts:

📝 Short Notes + Memory Tricks for LCR Circuit

🔹 1. Series LCR Circuit Setup
Components: Resistor (R), Inductor (L), Capacitor (C) all in series with AC
source.

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 Source voltage:

v = vm sin ωt ​

Current:

i = im sin(ωt + ϕ)
​

→ Phase angle ϕ depends on balance of XL (inductive reactance) & XC

(capacitive reactance).

👉 Memory Trick: “R-L-C in line → same current every time.”

🔹 2. Reactances
Inductive reactance:

XL = ωL ​

Capacitive reactance:

1
XC =
ωC
​ ​

👉 Memory Trick: “L loves ω, C hates ω.”

(Higher frequency → XL ↑, XC ↓).

🔹 3. Impedance (Z)
Total opposition to AC:

Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2 ​ ​ ​

Current amplitude:

vm
im =
​

Z
​ ​

👉 Memory Trick: “Impedance is just Pythagoras with R and reactance

difference.”

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🔹 4. Phase Angle (φ)
Relation:

XL − XC
tan ϕ =
​ ​

R
​

If XL > XC → inductive → current lags.

If XC > XL → capacitive → current leads.

👉 Memory Trick: “L for Late, C for Come early.”

🔹 5. Resonance (Special Case)

At resonance:

XL = XC ​ ​

→ Z = R (minimum)
→ Current maximum:
vm
im =
​

R
​ ​

Resonant frequency:

1
ω0 =
LC
​ ​

👉 Memory Trick: “When XL = XC → L and C cancel → only R rules.”

​

🔹 6. Graphical Memory
Impedance triangle: Right triangle with sides R, (XL - XC), hypotenuse Z.
Phasor diagram: VR along current; VL up; VC down.
Resonance graph: Sharp peak at ω0 (depends on R).

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👉 Memory Trick: “Triangle tells resistance, arrows tell lead/lag, peak tells
resonance.”

🔹 7. Applications
Tuning circuits (Radio, TV).
At resonance, circuit selects desired frequency.

👉 Memory Trick: “Radio sings at resonance.”

✨ That’s the whole 7.6 LCR section simplified:

Impedance (Z formula),
Phase (tan φ),
Resonance (XL = XC).

Do you want me to also make a comparison table (Resistor-only, Inductor-

only, Capacitor-only, LCR) so you can revise all cases in one glance?

Nice — you’ve now reached Section 7.7: Power in AC Circuit & Power Factor.
Let’s unpack it in crisp notes + memory tricks so it becomes super clear.

⚡ Power in AC Circuit
🔹 Instantaneous Power
Voltage: v = vm sin ωt
​

Current: i = im sin(ωt + ϕ)
​

Instantaneous power:

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 p=v⋅i

→ Simplifies to:

p = V I cos ϕ [1 − cos(2ωt)]
On averaging over one cycle, the cosine term vanishes.

👉 Average Power:
P = V I cos ϕ

🔹 Power Factor
Defined as cos ϕ.
Decides how much of the power is “real” (usable) vs. just circulating
between source & reactive elements.

👉 Memory Trick:
“Cos φ tells how effectively power flows.”
If cos φ = 1 → 100% efficient.
If cos φ = 0 → no real power (wattless).

🔹 Special Cases
(i) Pure Resistor (R)
φ = 0 → cos φ = 1
Power: P = V I (maximum).
👉 All power used up in heat/work.

(ii) Pure Inductor (L) or Capacitor (C)

φ = 90° → cos φ = 0

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 Power: P = 0.
Current flows but no net power consumed.
👉 Called wattless current.
👉 Memory Trick: “L & C just borrow power and return it — like a no-loss loan.”

(iii) LCR Series Circuit

XC − XL
φ = tan⁻¹
​ ​

R
​

Power:

P = V I cos ϕ = I 2 R
Only resistor consumes real power.

(iv) Resonance in LCR

At resonance: XC ​ = XL , φ = 0, cos φ = 1.
​

Power:

P = I 2R (maximum)
👉 At resonance, circuit is purely resistive → no wastage in L or C.

🔹 Quick Visual Memory

Resistor → full power (cos φ = 1).
Inductor/Capacitor → no power (cos φ = 0).
LCR → in-between (depends on R & phase).
Resonance → max power, like pure resistor.

👉 One-Line Trick:
“Cos φ = Power factor → Only R eats real power, L & C just play pass-the-energy.”

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Do you want me to also make a table of R, L, C, LCR (φ, cos φ, power) so you
can revise all in one glance?

Perfect — you’re now at Section 7.8: Transformers 🔄⚡. Let’s break this into
easy notes + quick memory hacks so you don’t mix things up.

🔹 Transformer Basics
Works on mutual induction.
Two coils wound on a soft iron core:
Primary coil (Np) → input
Secondary coil (Ns) → output

When AC is applied to primary → alternating flux in the core → induces emf

in secondary.

🔹 Key Equations
1. Voltage ratio

Vs Ns
=
​ ​

Vp Np
​ ​

​ ​

2. Current ratio

Is Np
=
​ ​

Ip Ns
​ ​

​ ​

3. Power (ideal case)

Vp Ip = Vs Is
​ ​ ​ ​

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🔹 Step-Up vs. Step-Down
Step-Up Transformer:
Ns > Np → Vs > Vp , Is < Ip .
👉 Increases voltage, decreases current.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Step-Down Transformer:
Ns < Np → Vs < Vp , Is > Ip .
👉 Decreases voltage, increases current.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

⚡ Example:
Primary 100 turns, Secondary 200 turns, Input 220 V, 10 A → Output = 440 V,
5 A.

🔹 Energy Losses (Real Transformers)

1. Flux leakage → not all flux links both coils → reduced by winding closely.
2. Resistance of windings → I 2 R heating → reduced by thick copper wire.
3. Eddy currents → heating in iron core → reduced by laminated core.
4. Hysteresis loss → due to repeated magnetisation → reduced by using
soft iron/low-hysteresis material.

👉 Efficiency = 95%+ in good design.

🔹 Power Transmission
Generation: Voltage stepped up (to reduce current → reduce I 2 R losses).
Transmission: High-voltage, low-current.
Distribution: Voltage stepped down in stages → finally 240 V for homes.

🧠 Memory Tricks
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 “N ↑ → V ↑, I ↓” (more turns in secondary → higher voltage, smaller
current).
4 Losses = F.R.E.H.
Flux leakage
Resistance heating
Eddy currents
Hysteresis
Use of transformers: “Step UP to send, Step DOWN to spend.” ⚡

Want me to also make you a diagram-based quick revision sheet (figures +

equations + losses) so you can revise transformers at a glance?

Perfect 👍 Let’s do a memory trick for Transformers (Class 12 Physics,

NCERT 7.8)

🔑 Core Ideas to Remember

Transformer → works on mutual induction (AC only, not DC).
Two coils on soft iron core:
Primary coil (Np) → input
Secondary coil (Ns) → output

📘 Memory Trick (Story Style)

👉 Think of a “Tea Stall Transformer” story:
1. Primary → Pouring Tea ☕ (Np turns = how many times you pour tea).
2. Secondary → Serving Cups 🍵 (Ns turns = how many cups you can
serve).

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 3. Rule:
If more cups than pours (Ns > Np) → Step-Up (more voltage, less
current).
If fewer cups than pours (Ns < Np) → Step-Down (less voltage, more
current).

👉 Formula:
Vs N Is Np
= s, =
​ ​ ​ ​

Vp Np Ip Ns
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​

(Voltage ratio = Turn ratio, Current ratio = Inverse).

🛑 Losses (Easy Mnemonic → “FRiEd Hens”) 🐔🔥

F → Flux leakage (not all flux links)
R → Resistance of winding (I²R loss)
E → Eddy currents (heating, reduced by laminated core)
H → Hysteresis loss (magnetisation reversal, reduced by soft iron)

⚡ Power Transmission Trick

“Step-Up → Send, Step-Down → Serve”
Step-Up at Power Plant → High V, low I → less loss in wires
Step-Down at Substations & Homes → Safe 240 V for use

Would you like me to also make a visual diagram-style memory map (like a
cartoon flow with step-up/step-down and losses)?

18/19
19/19