UNIT 1

GEOGRAPHY AND GIS

Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Geography, Cartography and
Expected Learning Outcomes GIS
1.2 Geography in Everyday Life 1.6 Summary
1.3 Geography as Spatial Science 1.7 Terminal Questions
1.4 Spatial Problems and 1.8 Answers
Geography 1.9 References and Further
Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Geographical Information System (GIS) has inseparable link with geography,
without which it cannot be thought of. It is deeply rooted in geography,
geographical concepts and geographical information. As geography looks at
the things and phenomena in holistic manner in areal combination, GIS
functions on the same philosophy with computer based tools developed from
geographical concepts and methods in and advanced with sophisticated form
with the advancement of geospatial technology, computing technology, geo-
statistics and graphic technology and advancing research in the acquisition,
analysis and presentation of geospatial information to answer various spatial
questions like what, where, how, why and what if. The capability of GIS
enhances significantly to answer these questions when integrated with remote
sensing, GPS and Information and Communication Technology. You will study
remote sensing in the 4th semester of MSc Geography programme, which is
the science, art and technology obtaining information about any object or
phenomenta remotely without being into physical contact. GPS is a satellite
based technology, which provides position in terms of latitude, longitude and
altitude (XY and Z coordinates) with time.
This Unit provides the basic understanding of spatial concepts covering
geography in everyday life, geography as spatial science, spatial problems
and geography; and geography, cartography and GIS to build foundation for
other successive units of this course on GIS fundamentals, data models and
geographic framework, GIS functionalities and GIS applications.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
17
Vijay Kumar Baraik
Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals

 be acquainted with geography in everyday life;

 explain geography as spatial science;
 discuss spatial problems and geography; and
 establish relationships among geography, cartography and GIS.

1.2 GEOGRAPHY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Knowingly or unknowingly, educated or uneducated, studied geography or
not, geographer or non-geographer, all need to visit/navigate certain places
every day, which involves location, position and situation or location, distance,
direction, etc. guided by geography only. Without geography, there will be no
determination of places and everything will be lost as flying dust. In this sense,
everyone uses geography and geographical knowledge in everyday life. The
location, distance and direction are in everyone’s mental map or the mental
maps are originated/created for new places/locations when desired to visit or
on talks in some context. Every human being uses his/her geographical
information for his/her everyday navigation to the neighbourhood, water
source, agricultural fields, shops and markets, animal grazing lands or for
animal rearing and grazing, fuel and fodder collection, shops and markets,
service centres like school/college, health centre, administrative offices, etc.
and also comes back home or the place of origin. Figure 1.1 depicts
geography or geographical knowledge in everyday life. A farmer knows the
type of land in terms of its location and position like upland, midland or low
land, availability of water, type of soil, etc. and decides the type of crop of
plants accordingly even without formal education in geography.
The usage is immensely valued at present due to navigation and finding
locations by the common man on their handheld digital device like mobile
phones as these devices are accessible and possessed by a considerable
size of population ranging from urban to rural areas, especially using Google
Map for navigation and finding locations.

Fig. 1.1: Geography in Everyday Life.

Geography is important as geographical features and phenomena affect

almost all spheres of human beings like population, culture, behaviour and
practices, resources, food habits, dress, mode of transportation, house
structure, settlement pattern, and even overall development. Any activity is
done on land and space and therefore geography will always be associated
18
Unit - 1
………………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Geography and GIS

with man leading to a live and very useful discipline forever. The value of
geography education may also be understood with the value of land and
space for the existence of man and its environment or the overall existence of
the Earth with its whole system. However, it should be contemporary with real-
world situations rather than too traditional. Moreover, ‘time’ and ‘space’ are the
basis of understanding our world, and therefore, geography is also in the
centrality. As an academic discipline, geography education gives an
understanding of the Earth, its system and sub-system where man’s activities
over changing Earth surface and its environment are studied in a holistic
manner. It makes citizens better informed and more aware of their
environment for sustainable development. The immense value of geography
education is in better management of emergency situations (disasters or
strategic), absolute and relative determination of places for several
applications and for the future security and safety of the nation (because of
international boundaries and geopolitics), etc.

It answers the most basic questions like ‘what’ and ‘where’ in the most
simplistic way without having any educational background in geography to the
most sophisticated form through its geospatial tool, which also answers ‘how’
(process), ‘why’ (causality) and ‘what if’ (future projection) along with temporal
questions (temporal pattern) as advanced level queries. It answers the basic
question of 'why' like why something exists at some particular place or region.
As stated earlier, a farmer knows the type of land in terms of its location and
position like upland, midland or low land, availability of water, type of soil, etc.
and decides the type of crop of plants accordingly even without formal
education in geography. The usage of geographical knowledge now exists in
all spheres of life.

SAQ 1
In what way geography is associated with everyone in everyday life?

1.3 GEOGRAPHY AS SPATIAL SCIENCE

Geography has evolved as spatial science from the descriptive discipline,
especially after the Second World War as it deals with the space and spatial
features represented by geometrical shapes of line (linear feature), point
(location) and polygon (area). Geography has always been a spatial science
ever since its emergence as a discipline as it is associated with space and
place. However, it got prominence after the Hartshorne-Schaefer debate
where geography was considered as spatial science with its capability of
spatial explanations moving forward from its descriptive nature (regional and
exceptional nature) and gained popularity across the world as a spatial
science. Alam quotes Couclelis ‘Geographers are concerned with space not
for its own sake, only for what it may mean for the phenomena they study. No
other empirical discipline allows space to play such an important role in its
approach to the world and in its own self-definition’ (Couclelis, 1992, p. 216
quoted in Alam, 2020). Alam further says “In geography, the term space is
used as an expanse (what is between things) as well as confines (what
contains them). In the first sense, space is defined as an area that is empty of
19
Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals

any matter. In the second sense, it is defined by the presence of matter”

(Alam, 2023).

Gradually, the nature of geography as spatial science became very popular

since the early 1950s with Theoretical Geography of William Bunge (1962)
and The Quantitative Revolution and Theoretical Geography (1963), where
intensive use of mathematical and statistical models started in the
geographical research and teaching following rigour, where space (absolute,
relative and relational/cognitive- perceived, conceived and mental space) and
its measurements, interpretation and explanations became rigorous. There are
various measures of space. For example, absolute space is also physical
space involving points, lines, areas, planes and configurations where
movements and connectedness (intersections and nodality) take place whose
relationships can be quantified through mathematical reasoning. Similarly,
topological space is there, without which GIS analysis cannot be performed
and is the representation of absolute space and takes care of the spatial
relationships between and among various features over the earth surface
represented by points, lines and polygons. Any kind of space is brought to the
topological space in GIS for further analysis whether it is relative or relational.
Since spatial means relating to space, spatial science is basically the science
dealing with space and its features or objects including interrelationships
among them or relationships between and among objects in space.

During this period (post 1950s), there were valuable contributions of

geographers strengthening geography as a spatial science. The prominent
names are Peter Haggett for his Locational Analysis in Human
Geography (1965), Richard Chorley and Peter Haggett for their Models in
Geography (1967), Ron Abler, John Adams, and Peter Gould for their Spatial
Organisation (1971), Richard L. Morrill for his The Spatial Organization of
Society (1970) Torsten Hägerstrand for Spatial Diffusion Model (1967), etc.

Geography as spatial science is characterised by a paradigm shift from

ideographic (descriptive) to nomothetic (explanatory), strongly positivistic,
having intensive and rigorous applications of mathematical and statistical
techniques in geographical studies, looking at the Earth and its system as
spatial systems in areal combination, formulation and testing of spatial
hypotheses, doing generalizations through empirical studies in spatial
organization, development of spatial models, morphological analysis for
prediction and forecasting of spatial patterns, analysis of spatial features –
points, lines and polygons and their spatial patterns, developing spatial
models, and intensive applications of geospatial techniques moving ahead of
digital cartography on the single platform or canvas. The turn of geography
into spatial science takes a paradigm shift in its nature from descriptive to
explanatory, which has the capability to explain the existence of things and
phenomena in terms of ‘what, where, why, how and what if’ related to spatial
aspects like location, spatial distribution, spatial interaction, diffusion,
movements, concentration, spatial autocorrelation, etc. All these questions are
answered in geography now at a much faster pace using its modern
geographical tool, GIS.

Location, spatial distribution, spatial interaction, spatial diffusion and spatial

autocorrelation are the essential concepts in geography as spatial science,
20
Unit - 1
………………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Geography and GIS

where location is the measure of position in the geographical space

(answering the question where). There have been several important models
based on locations similar to Walter Christaller’s Central Place Theory,
Industrial Location Theories by August Losch, Alfred Webber and Walter
Isard, etc. The considerations are distance and cost finding the least-cost
location. Spatial distribution measures the patterns of distribution of
geographical objects and phenomena over the geographical space like Walter
Christaller’s Central-Place Theory, which looks at the locations and distribution
of settlements and their spacing also as given by GK Zip in his Rank Size Rule
for size and spacing. Spatial interaction measures interactions of settlements
of various sizes and distances by applying Newton’s ‘laws of gravitational
attraction’ in assessing flows of migration, commodity or freight, traffic,
information, etc. Spatial diffusion measures the outward and downward
diffusion of any idea or invention from the source location on the idea of
Swedish geographer Torsten Hagerstrand. Spatial Autocorrelation measures
the degree of similarity and relationship between nearby observations similar
to Waldo Tobler’s First Law of Geography, which says ‘everything is related to
everything else, but near things are more related than distant things. Spatial
Science not only studies the location, distribution and patterns but also
interrelationships in relation to the associated physical and human factors for
such existence. All these are also done using maps and mathematical/
statistical tools, for which GIS is an important tool.

The rapid progress of geospatial tools (GIS, Remote Sensing and GPS) along
with the Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and availability of
spatial information or data (big data) brought about a kind of revolution like the
‘Geospatial Revolution’ in geography also and strengthened the discipline
more as spatial science.

The development of GIS is said to be from endogenous factors within

geography and exogenous factors outside geography. Theoretical Geography,
Quantitative Revolution and spatial turn of geography into Spatial Science led
to the germination of GIS with the geographical concept of spatial
relationships and analysis as things and phenomena in a particular
geographical space are interrelated as areal combinations. The exogenous
factors had been the advancements in computer sciences and graphic
technology. And finally, GIS strengthened geography as Spatial Science.

SAQ 2
What is spatial science?

1.4 SPATIAL PROBLEMS AND GEOGRAPHY

Our real-world problems associated with space can be studied and resolved
through the geographical approach. Many important problems are inherently
spatial as these take place in some geographical space. Such problems pose
a range of challenges of varying degrees of impact in terms of temporal and

21
Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals

spatial scale. These may be health and epidemic-related, climate change and
environment, sustainability, natural resources, livelihood and economic
development, inequality and balanced regional development, transport,
disaster-related problems (drought and flood, earthquake, landslide, forest fire
and wildlife, cyclone, tsunami, etc.) man-made hazards/disasters,
infrastructure, facility and utility related problems, urban planning and housing,
etc. As you have studied, the nature of geography is interdisciplinary and the
perspective of geography is holistic; it studies things and phenomena in
complex interrelationships, geography is of immense relevance to solving
these complex problems as things are interrelated.

Geography through its holistic and integrative approach analyses how all
factors are interrelated having a common linkage- space or
location/area/region and gives map-based prioritization and solution or spatial
solutions. Geography's engine is sophisticated tools and techniques like
remote sensing providing very high-resolution real-time and near-real-time
satellite, airborne and drone data, very large scale DEM data and all-weather
satellite data; very powerful and intelligent Geographical Information System
and easily accessible GPS together provide intelligent maps for very scientific
decision making. Geographic information is a must for managing the present
and future issues of the world. Geographers study the entire system in totality
linking both the aspects – Physical as well as Societal- leading to the study of
causal relations between the two and thus finding out the problem and
solutions through the integration of both. It studies the human impact on the
environment and also the environmental impact on man. A geographer can
then work on future prediction/projection of the probable/future problems
through modelling/simulation and develop a solution model as well.

Geography is very relevant in the present time due to growing

environmental/physical, human and cultural issues from local to global level or
real-world problems related to space or spatial nature ranging from natural
and man-made disasters/hazard management to, socio-economic problems,
issues of regional disparities and economic development, regional
development planning, growing population and food security,
local/regional/global conflicts, effects of global warming and climate change on
human society and social organizations including livelihood, health problems
and epidemics, etc.

The nature and perspectives of geography and the application of geographical

methods help in finding the answers and solutions to many questions and
problems or issues like what are the problems faced due to global warming
and climate change, where are these problems located, what have been the
factors for inducing these and what are the ways to mitigate these in the
region, etc. Similarly, one example may be what health problems are over a
certain region or whole globe, where these problems are located over a
certain region or whole globe, where these problems are found, how these
problems have emerged, and how these problems can be tackled. Similarly, it
can address questions like what are the disaster-prone areas or zones, what
is the nature of the disaster, how can this be managed from early warning to
evacuation and post-disaster mitigation and management; what is the
development pattern, what are the deprived areas/regions and how can the
deprived regions be developed using spatial or regional planning. This kind of
22
Unit - 1
………………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Geography and GIS

holistic studyis done in geography involving all relevant aspects drawn from
various associated disciplines to find the answers. Its relevance has increased
due to growing real-world problems related to nature and society. It is very
important both for problem-solving and exploration of new knowledge.

Key Areas of Spatial Issues

i. Natural Resource Management- land, water, forest
ii. Hazard/Disaster Management- drought and flood, lightening, landslide,
forest fire, cyclone, tsunami, earthquake
iii. Agriculture and fisheries
iv. Regional Development and Planning indicating Land Development
Action Plan or Water Resource Development Action Plan/Landuse
Planning
v. Urban Planning / Urban Development
vi. Human-Animal Conflict
vii. Crime mapping, monitoring, surveillance and predictive analysis
viii. Climate change and environmental sustainability
ix. Livelihood
x. Logistics and Supply Chain Management
xi. Transport – navigation and fleet management, tracking, emergency plan,
connectivity and shortest route, etc.
xii. Retail and business
xiii. Telemedicine (Health Services to remote locations through virtual
medicines)
xiv. Watershed Development
xv. Health Planning
xvi. Education Planning
xvii. Livelihood and Economy

Geographers are always concerned with the study of natural resources their
types, stock and reserves. Geographers assess the availability and quantity or
distribution and quantity of natural resources; and their relation with society in
terms of utility, exploitation and utilization, etc. Therefore, they raise an alarm
for the rational utilization of natural resources or suggest replenishment, the
probability of substitutes to protect the environment, etc. Geographical
knowledge is used for natural resource management like land parcel mapping
and management, land use and land cover mapping and land use planning’
wetland mapping and management; wasteland mapping, reclamation and
management, aridity, glaciations, vegetation, water resources- surface water,
groundwater and water resource development plan, watershed management,
location of route and site selections, etc.

Geographical knowledge and tools are very helpful in environment

management by studying various aspects of environment, environment health,
its impact assessment and future plans. It is also very useful in global climate
change studies.

It helps in planning evacuation, relocation, routing and movement, rescue, etc.

during hazards and disasters. It also helps in early warning systems. A very
recent example is successful management during the Odisha Cyclone
preventing losses by well-informed preparations. It is very useful in the whole
process from planning, execution, rehabilitation and monitoring.
23
Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals

Human activities essentially need geographical knowledge like mining,

industrial set-up (site suitability), finding suitable locations for utility and
facilities like educational institutions, health facilities, routing road and rail
networks, navigation of all types, agriculture (with land resource development
plan, suitability for various crops based on physiography, soil, slope, climate,
etc.), fishery (forecasting Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ), daily advisory for best
locations for good fish catch, urban issues like solid waste management,
drainage and sewage management, property management, management of
urban vegetation, open spaces and public spaces, infrastructure, etc. Since
the space is inseparably related to the issues of regional development and
disparities, the study of diversity and regional disparity/inequality is inherent in
geography with the help of quantitative techniques developed for
regionalization based on certain development indicators in its sub-branch of
Regional Planning or Regional Development and Planning. Moreover, as
development and disparity are not unidimensional, geography is very useful in
the study of regional disparity and development in a multi-dimensional way
overlaying all relevant information together from physical to human or
institutional to find out lagging behind regions or underdeveloped regions for
proper spatially enabled interventions. Geography has made important
contributors to the issue of regional disparity in development in India. It has
great capability in navigation, traffic flow and fleet management. Geography is
used even for market analysis or business analysis/geographical coverage of
the market area, customer purchasing behaviour, mapping for business, etc.
or for the determination of the area of impact/influence (buffer), site suitability
analysis, etc. Geographical knowledge is utilized in e-Governance and public
services also for effective service deliveries and monitoring of progress.
Geographical information and analytical capability help in crime mapping,
hotspot identification, and crime predictive analysis modelling. Hence,
geography through its tool

GIS with its strong capabilities enhanced by remote sensing, GPS and
Information and Communication Technology can provide solutions to spatial
problems related to diverse issues cutting across disciplinary boundaries.

Thus geographical knowledge is very important in dealing with spatial

problems or problems related to space.

SAQ 3
List some important spatial problems.

1.5 GEOGRAPHY, CARTOGRAPHY AND GIS

Geography and Cartography

The core of geographical studies is human-environment interaction in relation

to space and place (area or region), whereas cartography is its tool for the
visual representation of these in varying scales. Geography is the science of
space or place/location and for any locational or spatial problem/issue, one
requires a map as a visual form of information of that space containing all
24
Unit - 1
………………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Geography and GIS

relevant objects/features and phenomena on a map and the map is drawn by

cartography. Hence, geography and cartography are complementary to each
other- geography supplies geographical or spatial information to cartography
for map making and cartography provides tools and techniques for preparing
visual forms or maps of geographical information in areal combination of
things/objects or phenomena over the space for further usage in research and
solution of spatial problems. Cartography is deeply rooted in geography as it
requires geographical information to plot on a map or to illustrate graphically.
Cartography reflects the facts and phenomena of the earth visually in a
synoptic way. The users of cartographic output- particularly maps, infer the
given information in the map for various purposes. Now Cartography has been
rapidly changing into Digital Cartography, which depends on GIS.

Fig. 1.2: Inter-relationships among Geography, Cartography and GIS.

You may see the inter-relationships among geography, cartography and GIS
in Fig. 1.2.

Geography and GIS

Geography has been the soil for the germination of GIS as the origin is
Computer Cartography upgraded from cartography, and GIS is deeply rooted
in cartography. In fact, both cartography and GIS are deeply rooted in
geography as both are based on geographical information and knowledge.
According to Taylor and Johnston (1995), GIS is an outcome of endogenous
factors within geography, i.e. quantitative techniques and exogenous factors
like rapid advancements in computing technology. Raza (1972) also supports
the endogenous development through cartography saying “Each discipline
develops its own tools, techniques and methodology, which arise in response
to the problems within its field of study. Geography is no exception. It is,
however, open to question whether all these tools, techniques, and methods
can be brought, with equal validity, within the purview of Geography by
25
Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals

designing them as its sub-discipline. Mapping Techniques, for example, are

essential specific to Geography, and Cartography can rightly be so designed
(p. XXIII).” Further Burrough and McDonnel state that “From the earliest
civilizations to modern times, spatial data have been collected by navigators,
geographers, and surveyors to be recorded in coded, pictorial form by map-
makers and cartographers…The Geographical Information Society was first
created through the establishment of national government bodies whose
mandate was to produce cadastral and topographical maps of whole
countries” (Burrough, 1998, pp. 1-2). Taylor termed the emergence and
advancement of GIS as 'geography's own little bit of the "high-tech" revolution'
(Rhind, et al., 1991). In a very simple sense, GIS is Geographical and has a
lineage from Geography.

Cartography and GIS

Cartography is the art, science and technique of making maps. It produces

thematic maps. However, GIS has additional capabilities. The end product of
GIS is cartographic output or thematic maps. But it also produces reports and
charts. The major difference is that GIS has the functionality of spatial and
non-spatial data capture, store and management, integration of both spatial
(maps) and non-spatial (attributes or properties of spatial features), data
analysis with multi-layer or multi-thematic spatial and non-spatial queries. It is
capable of creating smart maps to capture the topological properties of various
features in a dynamic way for very advanced queries and responses like travel
time calculation based on the presence of impediments like intersections,
traffic lights, etc. or hurdle-free roads using flyover on the intersections. It has
also the additional features of specific application tools for different fields like
natural resource management (hydrogeomorphology and water resources,
weather and climate, land use and land cover, forest resource), agriculture,
mineral resources, epidemic, crime, transport, business, etc. It has the
capacity to satellite and GPS data integration and analysis also. In a nutshell,
it can be said that map was a “language” of geographers, but now
geographical information, knowledge and skill in its various forms like
GeoInformatics (GIS, Remote Sensing, GPS and Information and
Communication Technologies) has become a universal spatial language
cutting across all disciplinary boundaries and professional fields to present the
real world in simplified models to solve the real world problems of research
related issues. As Fig. 1.2 depicts, Cartography provides visualization of
geographical information to Geography, map representation/cartographic
technique to GIS and GIS provides cartographic data inputs to cartography.
Presently GIS has very strong cartographic capabilities integrated into it.

SAQ 4
What is the basis of the relationship between geography, cartography and
GIS?

1.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied:

26
Unit - 1
………………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Geography and GIS

 how is geography embedded in the everyday lives of people;

 turning geography as spatial science;
 spatial problems and geography to see how is geography related to spatial
problems in finding solutions; and
 relationships between geography and cartography, geography and GIS and
cartography and GIS and interrelationships among these three.

1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the role and practice of geography in everyday life.

2. Explain geography as spatial science and its relationship with GIS.

3. How is geography related to the real-world spatial problems?

4. What are the associations and interrelationships among these three-

geography, cartography and GIS?

1.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. Without geography, there will be no determination of places and
everything will be lost as flying dust. In this sense everyone uses
geography and geographical knowledge in everyday life knowingly or
unknowingly, educated or uneducated, studied geography or not,
geographer or non-geographer; all need to visit/navigate certain places
every day, which involves location, distance, direction, etc. guided by
geography only.
2. Spatial Science is basically the science dealing with space and its features
or objects including interrelationships among them or relationships
between and among objects in space.
3. The basis of the relationship between geography, cartography and GIS is
space and spatial (geographical) information.

Terminal Questions
1. Discuss the role and practice of geography in everyday life as how
everyone applies geographical information in locating places and
navigating at different scales. Refer to Section 1.2.
2. Elaborate geography taking the spatial turn after the Hartshorne-Schaefer
Debate moving from regional or exceptional discipline to explanatory
discipline turning into spatial science with extensive quantification and
scientific rigour. Also discuss its relationship with GIS, and how geography
and geographical knowledge are the base for the germination and
advancement of GIS. Refer to Section 1.3.
3. Explain how geography is related to real-world problems, which are spatial
in nature. Many problems are related to space as those problems or issues
take place in certain spatial frameworks in terms of location (place) or

27
Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals

area/region. Further geography through its holistic and integrative approach

analyses how all factors are interrelated having a common linkage- space
or location/area/region and gives map-based prioritization and solution or
spatial solutions. Spatial problems cut across disciplinary boundaries
beyond geography. Refer to Section 1.4.
4. Explain the association of geography, cartography and GIS as to how they
are interrelated and highlight the basis of relationships that are common or
shared information, i.e. geographical/spatial information. Geography
provides cartography and GIS spatial/ geographical information and
cartography and GIS provide sophisticated tools for visualization and
spatial analysis to geography for the solution of research-related problems
or real-world problems. Refer to Section 1.5.

1.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Johnston, R.J. 2(2006). Geography and GIS. in Longley, P.A., Goodchild,
M.F., Maguire, D.J. and D.W. Rhind. (ed.). Geographical Information
Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., pp. 39-47.
2. Pickle, J. (ed). Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic
Information Systems. New York: The Guilford Press, pp.51-67.
3. Baraik, V.K. (2013). Geography, GeoInformatics and eGovernance. In
Sharma, P.R., Yadava, R. S. & V.N. Sharma (eds.). Interdisciplinary
Advances in Geography. New Delhi: RK Books, pp. 170-186.
4. Raza, Moonis (1972). Geography as a Social Science. In ICSSR (ed.). A
Survey of Research in Geography. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, p. xxiii.
5. Burrough, P.A. and R.A. McDonnell (1998). Principles of Geographical
Information Systems: Spatial Information Systems and Geostatistics. New
York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-2.
6. Rhind, D. W., Goodchild, M. F. and D. J. Maguire (1991). Epilogue. in
Maguire, D. J., M.F. Goodchild and D.W. Rhind (eds.). Geographical
Information Systems: Principles and Applications. New York: Longman
Scientific and Technical, p. 314.
7. Alam, S. (2023). Geography as Spatial Science, in Sinha, S. (ed.).
Introduction to Geographical Thought, New Delhi: IGNOU, pp. 97-116.

28
 UNIT 2

DEFINITION AND
FUNCTIONALITY OF GIS
Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.6 Functionalities and
Expected Learning Outcomes Capabilities of GIS
2.2 Definition of GIS 2.7 Summary
2.3 Components of GIS 2.8 Terminal Questions
2.4 Procedure and Workflows 2.9 Answers
2.5 Evolution of GIS 2.10 References and Further
Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied geography in everyday life, geography as spatial science,
spatial problems and geography; geography, cartography and GIS as a brief
background of GIS. In this Unit, we are going to learn the concept of
Geographic Information System (GIS), which is a computer-based tool used
to collect, store, analyze, and visualize geographic or spatial data along with
its associated attribute information with a focus on definition, components,
procedures, evolution and functionalities and capabilities of GIS.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 get acquainted with the definition of GIS and its usefulness in modern
life,
 learn about various components of GIS,
 explain various procedures and workflows in GIS,
 trace the evolution of GIS, and
 evaluate the functionalities and capabilities of GIS.

2.2 DEFINITION OF GIS

2.2.1 Definitions
The definition of GIS has been evolving with time as its functionality and
technology is evolving. Also, it is used by different people from diverse
29
Biplab Biswas
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
backgrounds and therefore definitions are also diverse. You may see the
same in the following definitions:

 A set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and

displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes
(Burroughs, 1986).
 A system of hardware, software and procedure designed to support the
capture, management, manipulation, analysis, modelling and display of
spatially referenced data for solving complex planning and management
problems” (D.W. Rhind, 1989)
 an information system used to manipulate, summarize, query, edit, and
visualize spatial and non-spatial information stored in a computer
database (Goodchild, 1997).
 a digital system for the acquisition, management, analysis, and
visualization of spatial data for the purposes of planning, administering,
and monitoring the natural and socioeconomic environment (Konecny,
2003).
 A computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and
displaying geographically referenced information, i.e., data identified
according to their locations (USGS, 2005).
 an automated system for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and
display of spatial data (Slocum et al., 2005)
 a computer-based system designed to manage and use geospatial data
to solve spatial problems (Lo and Yeung, 2007)
 A GIS is a computer-based system to aid in the collection, maintenance,
storage, analysis, output, and distribution of spatial data and information.
(Bolstad, p. 2)
 An integrated collection of computer software and data used to view and
manage information about geographic places, analyze spatial
relationships, and model spatial processes. A GIS provides a framework
for gathering and organizing spatial data and related information so that it
can be displayed and analyzed ([Link]
dictionary/gis).
 A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that
analyzes and displays geographically referenced information. It uses data
that is attached to a unique location ([Link]

Overall, it may be defined as ‘A system of hardware, software and procedures

involving Manpower to Capture, Store, Manage, Update, Manipulate,
Analyze/Modeling, Retrieve and Display Geographical (Spatially Referenced)
and Tabular Data (Attributes) for solving complex Real World spatial
problems.’

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool that captures,

stores, manages, analyzes, and visualizes spatial and attribute data. It
combines location-based (spatial) data with descriptive (attribute) data to help
solve geographic problems and support decision-making. GIS plays a pivotal

30
Unit - 2
……………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Definition and Functionality of GIS

role in resource management, planning, and development across various

domains, including environmental conservation, urban planning, disaster
response, and public health.

GIS helps to identify and describe geographic objects on the Earth, such as
roads, buildings, rivers, and forests. For instance, a building on a university
campus can be identified by its coordinates (latitude and longitude) and
described by attribute data such as its name, height, number of floors, and
purpose. The spatial scale of GIS applications ranges from a small feature,
like a single building, to a global level, with temporal scales spanning from
short-term events to long-term processes.

The advancement of GIS technology, along with remote sensing capabilities,

has introduced several new scientific terminologies, many featuring the prefix
“Geo.” These terms reflect GIS’s expanding role in understanding and
managing Earth's physical, social, and environmental systems.

 Geoinformatics: Integrates GIS, remote sensing, and IT for analyzing

geographic phenomena.
 GeoInternet/GeoWeb: Web-based platforms for accessing and sharing
spatial data.
 Geomatics: Involves gathering, storing, processing, and delivering
spatially referenced information.
 Geoinformation: Refers to processed and structured geographic data.
 Geoknowledge: Insights derived from analyzing geoinformation to
address spatial problems.
 Geoservices: Web-based services for analyzing spatial data, such as
weather maps or traffic analyses.
 Geoprocessing: Operations on spatial data, such as buffering or
interpolation.
 Geocoding: Converting spatial features into geographic coordinates.
 Geoviewer: Tools for visualizing geospatial data layers.
 Geoapplications: Applications built using geospatial technologies, such
as location-based services.
 Global Positioning System (GPS) and GNSS: Satellite-based
navigation systems providing real-time location data.
 Geocaching: A recreational activity that uses GPS to find hidden
locations.

2.2.2 Spatial Data Types and Sources

GIS uses two primary data formats: raster and vector. Raster data is a grid of
pixels, each containing a value that represents information such as elevation,
temperature, or vegetation. It is sourced from scanned maps, satellite
imagery, aerial photographs, and digital elevation models (DEMs). Raster
data is suitable for analyzing continuous phenomena but can be storage-
intensive.

31
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
Vector data, on the other hand, represents features through points, lines, and
polygons. Points denote specific locations (e.g., wells), lines represent linear
features (e.g., roads), and polygons define areas (e.g., forests). Vector data is
compact and widely used for spatial analysis, mapping, and decision-making.

Both raster and vector data complement each other in GIS applications.
Raster provides continuous information, while vector allows precise mapping
and detailed spatial analysis. Together, they enable a comprehensive
understanding of geographical patterns and processes.

2.2.3 Applications of GIS and Role of GIS in Planning,

Management, and Governance
GIS has diverse applications across various fields like natural resource
management, environmental management, urban planning, disaster
management, agriculture, public health, cadastral mapping and property
records, etc. GIS has become an indispensable tool for planning,
management, and administration due to its ability to seamlessly integrate,
analyze, and visualize both spatial and non-spatial data. It empowers
decision-makers by providing precise geographic insights that support
efficient problem-solving across various sectors.

Some of the key areas with the major role of GIS are:
 Urban Planning and Infrastructure Development: GIS aids in analyzing
spatial relationships and simulating future scenarios for better urban
growth management, transportation network design, and infrastructure
development.
 Natural Resource Management: GIS supports monitoring and
conserving natural resources, tracking environmental changes, and
optimizing agricultural productivity.
 Disaster Management: By identifying high-risk zones and planning
evacuation routes, GIS enhances preparedness, response, and recovery
efforts.
 Governance and Public Administration: Governments and
organizations use GIS for policy formulation, asset management, public
service delivery, and demographic analysis. GIS streamlines operations
by providing a geographic context for data-driven decisions.

Moreover, widely available services like Google Maps, Google Earth, and
ISRO’s Bhuvan platform have made virtual globe exploration accessible to
the public. The term “Geospatial” has emerged as an umbrella concept
encompassing all technologies, data, and methods related to Earth's spatial
information. To address the challenges of spatial data acquisition like high
cost, limited access, data gaps, complex formats, lack of awareness, etc.,
numerous government and non-government organizations, and research
initiatives now provide free spatial databases. These are Bhuvan (ISRO),
India’s geoportal offering high-resolution satellite imagery, thematic maps,
and interactive mapping tools; Landsat (USGS/NASA), the world’s longest-
running Earth observation program, providing free multi-spectral imagery for
environmental monitoring; Sentinel (Copernicus Initiative/ESA), advanced
32
Unit - 2
……………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Definition and Functionality of GIS

Earth observation system offering high-resolution data for environmental

monitoring, agriculture, disaster management, and urban planning; SRTM
and ASTER GDEM, global digital elevation models for terrain analysis;
WorldClim and NASA EarthData, climate and environmental data; Natural
Earth and GADM, administrative and cultural datasets; OpenStreetMap
(OSM): Collaborative mapping project providing free spatial data for urban
planning and navigation; and Global Forest Watch and HydroSHEDS,
datasets for forest cover monitoring and hydrography.

The effective management and utilization of spatial and attribute data in GIS
rely on the integration of hardware, software, data, and human expertise. As
GIS continues to evolve, it plays an increasingly critical role in fostering data-
driven solutions for sustainable development, governance, and global
challenges.

SAQ 2
Give the functional definition of GIS.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a robust technology for managing,
analyzing, and visualizing spatial and attribute data. It is composed of several
components like hardware, softwares, data, people and procedures and its
effectiveness relies on the critical roles of these components.

1. Hardware

GIS applications require high-performance hardware to handle large, complex

datasets such as satellite imagery, digital elevation models (DEMs), GPS and
survey data. Key hardware components include:

 Powerful Processors (CPUs/GPUs): Essential for demanding tasks like

3D modelling, terrain analysis, and image classification.
 High-Storage Capacity: Needed for securely storing raster data and
geodatabases.
 High-Resolution Monitors: Crucial for visualizing detailed maps.
 Efficient RAM: Required for loading and processing large datasets in
realtime.

In addition to the above, the other kinds of hardware are also very important
as the source of data for GIS. Drones have become indispensable for
collecting high-resolution spatial data in inaccessible areas like rugged
terrains and disaster zones. Equipped with advanced sensors, they provide
precise data for land surveys and agricultural monitoring on real real-time
basis.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) devices, including NaVIC and

GPS receivers, are essential for capturing accurate location data during field
surveys. Similarly, Electronic Total Stations are very powerful equipment for

33
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
survey data. Applications include mapping transportation networks,
cadastral/property boundaries, and utility lines.

Remote sensing sensors installed on satellites and aircraft further enhance

GIS capabilities by capturing data in multiple spectral bands. They support
environmental monitoring, land-use studies, and disaster response initiatives.

2. Software

GIS software is the engine of a Geographic Information System enabling data

integration, analysis, and visualization. Without software, GIS would be
limited to a mere manual process of superimposing transparent maps and
doing analysis manually. Also, the hardware supports GIS software to run and
function and therefore both are complementary to each other.

Key Functions of GIS Software:

 Data Capture: GIS software has the capability to capture spatial and non-
spatial data for further spatial analysis and visualization.
 Data Management: GIS software supports various data formats (raster
and vector) enabling seamless integration. For instance, satellite images
can be overlaid with land-use maps to analyze urban growth.
 Spatial Analysis: Tools for tasks like buffer analysis, network
optimization, and terrain modelling help users extract patterns and predict
trends. For example, flood risk assessments rely heavily on these
analytical capabilities.
 Visualization: Dynamic maps and thematic representations simplify
understanding complex spatial relationships. Softwares offers 2D, 3D, and
interactive mapping features for urban planning, geotechnical, disaster
and strategic studies.
 Real-Time Data Processing: Automation through programming
languages like Python and JavaScript streamlines repetitive tasks. Real-
time GIS applications are used for vehicle tracking and weather
monitoring.
 Decision Support: GIS outputs assist decision-makers in infrastructure
planning, resource management, urban development, transport and
navigation, strategic applications, etc., by providing actionable insights.

Popular commercial software includes ArcGIS and MapInfo, while free and
open-source options such as QGIS, GRASS GIS, and GeoServer have
gained prominence.

Free and Open-Source GIS Software (FOSS4G)

FOSS4G tools are cost-effective alternatives that provide extensive

geospatial processing capabilities. They are freely accessible, customizable,
and compliant with open standards ensuring compatibility with various
systems. Active user communities support development and contribute to
continuous improvements.

34
Unit - 2
……………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Definition and Functionality of GIS

Seamless integration of hardware and software components in GIS has

revolutionized spatial data analysis and visualization empowering decision-
makers across various fields, including urban planning, disaster management,
environmental conservation and so on.

3. Data

Data is the core and forms the backbone of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), enabling users to visualize, analyze, and solve complex spatial
problems. Accurate, relevant, and high-quality data is essential for effective
GIS operations and decision-making. There are two types of GIS Data:

 Spatial Data: Geographic locations of features such as points (locations

or landmarks), lines (linear feathers like roads), and polygons (areas with
boundaries).
 Attribute Data: Descriptive details about spatial features, like a road's
name, width, or traffic density.

Together, spatial and attribute data enable comprehensive GIS operations,

forming the basis for visualization, analysis, and decision-making.

Key Roles of Data in GIS

i. Providing Information: Data provides information in the form of spatial

features and their properties for mapping and all other procedures in GIS.
ii. Visualization: Maps driven by data reveal patterns and trends, such as
population hotspots for infrastructure planning.
iii. Analysis: Spatial data facilitates advanced analyses like route
optimization, land-use predictions, and environmental assessments.
iv. Decision-Making: High-quality data supports urban planning, disaster
management and resource allocation. For instance, flood risk maps help
disaster preparedness.
v. Monitoring: Real-time spatial data from satellites or GPS supports traffic
management and deforestation monitoring.

Data accuracy, timeliness, and completeness are critical to the reliability of

GIS outputs. Poor data can lead to flawed decisions. For example, using
outdated population data may result in inefficient infrastructure planning.

Emerging data sources such as drone imagery, IoT sensors, and crowd-
sourced platforms (e.g., OpenStreetMap) enrich GIS databases. Real-time
streams from GPS and social media further enable dynamic solutions for
modern challenges.

5. People

While hardware, software, and data are essential, people are the driving force
behind GIS. They bring purpose to the system through planning, data
collection, analysis, and decision-making.

35
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
Key Roles of People in GIS

It is people who plan and execute the GIS operations from data capture to
visualization. The following are the roles of people in GIS:

i. Decision-makers: Use GIS outputs for problem-solving and policy

development.
o Example: Urban planners decide where to build new schools by
analyzing population data.
o Environmentalists use GIS to monitor biodiversity and conservation
areas.

ii. GIS Specialists: Provide technical expertise in spatial data management

and analysis.
o Tasks include data collection, suitability analysis, network modelling,
and map creation.

iii. GIS Administrators: Maintain system functionality, manage servers,

ensure data security, and update software.
iv. End-Users: Leverage GIS outputs in daily operations.
o Field Workers: Collect real-time data during surveys.
o Public Users: Navigate through platforms like Google Earth and make
use as per their requirements.
o Researchers: Study phenomena like climate change or disease
outbreaks.
o GIS Educators: GIS educators train future GIS professionals, develop
curricula, and foster innovation to keep the human component of GIS
adaptive.
o Ethical Responsibility: People ensure GIS is used ethically by:

 Protecting sensitive data.

 Avoiding biased interpretations.
 Promoting transparent decision-making.

For example, ethical GIS practices ensure land-use decisions do not harm
marginalized communities.

People remain the cornerstone of GIS, driving innovation, decision-making,

and ethical practices, ultimately maximizing GIS's societal impact.

The rise of collaborative mapping platforms like OpenStreetMap allows

individuals to contribute valuable data by mapping roads or marking crisis-
affected areas.

6. Procedure

The procedure includes the activities right from conceptualization or planning

to end results like GIS project planning, data collection, data capture,
database storage and management, manipulation, updation, analysis and
display or visualization.

36
Unit - 2 Definition and Functionality of GIS
……………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………
SAQ 2
What are the components of GIS?

2.4 PROCEDURE AND WORKFLOWS

Procedures or Methods and workflows are essential components in GIS,
providing structured processes for managing spatial and attribute data. They
ensure efficiency, accuracy, and consistency in GIS operations. Without
them, tasks risk becoming inefficient, inaccurate, or inconsistent.

Procedures or Methods in GIS

GIS procedure is the process of representing the real world in digital form. It
includes data collection about the real world, data input, data management,
data retrieval and manipulation, query and analysis, and producing final
output by displaying or visualizing for taking action for a better world.

 Data Collection: Field surveys, remote sensing, and crowdsourcing.

 Data Capturing/Input: Capturing data into the GIS environment through
manual, semi-automatic or automatic digitization, importing data from
digital survey equipment like GPS/DGPS/ETS, etc., data provided from
other agencies/formats, and remote sensing data.
 Projection/Reprojection: Projection and reprojection of data involving the
process of defining spatial data in terms of geographical location on the
globe assigning suitable projection and coordinate systems.
 Data Preparation and Database Management: Data cleaning and
horizontal and vertical integration and data storage.
 Query and Analysis: Spatial and attribute query and analysis including
buffering, overlay analysis, interpolation, and network analysis.
 Presentation (Display or Visualization): Map design principles and data
visualization standards.

In modern GIS, networks are vital for sharing, integrating, processing, and
delivering spatial data and services. They connect users, servers, and
databases, supporting collaboration and scalability. Networks in GIS help in
collaborative projects enabling real-time teamwork. The benefits of Network-
Based GIS are real-time data sharing (like COVID-19), scalability (cloud
platforms scale storage and processing power), cost efficiency through cloud-
based services, and enhanced security (data encryption, access control, and
automated backups). There are challenges like cyber security threats,
bandwidth limitations, and potential network failures disrupting operations.
However, networks are indispensable for modern GIS, fostering collaboration,
real-time integration, and scalable solutions. They underpin advancements
like smart cities, autonomous vehicles, and environmental monitoring,
shaping the future of GIS applications.

37
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
SAQ 3
List the procedures of GIS.

2.5 EVOLUTION OF GIS

The development of GIS spans centuries, evolving from simple manual maps
to sophisticated spatial analysis systems. One of the most pivotal early
examples is Dr. John Snow's Cholera Map of 1854, a landmark in spatial
analysis and public health.

During the devastating 1854 cholera outbreak in London, prevailing beliefs

attributed the disease to "miasma" or foul air. Dr John Snow, skeptical of this
theory, hypothesized that cholera spread through contaminated water.

To test his theory, Snow conducted field surveys, documenting the addresses
of cholera victims and mapping the locations of water pumps. He then created
thematic hand-drawn maps, marking cholera deaths as points. This
visualization revealed a striking cluster around the Broad Street water pump
(now Broadwick Street), identifying it as the outbreak's source.

Snow’s findings convinced authorities to remove the pump handle, effectively

halting the outbreak. Subsequent investigations confirmed the pump's
contamination from a nearby cesspit.

Significance of Snow's Work

1. Introduction of Spatial Analysis: Snow's approach to integrating
geographic data with public health analysis marked the birth of spatial
analysis.
2. Foundation of Modern Epidemiology: His methodology laid the
groundwork for using maps to track and manage diseases.
3. Precursor to GIS: Though created manually, Snow’s map demonstrated
the power of visualizing spatial data to derive actionable insights.

Today, Snow's map is celebrated as a historic example of data-driven

decision-making. It has inspired countless applications in fields such as
disease outbreak management, urban planning, and modern GIS
development, highlighting the enduring impact of his ground-breaking work.

38
Unit - 2
……………………………… Definition
tion and Functionality
……………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Func of GIS

Fig. 2.1: Dr Snow's Map, 1854.

Source: [Link]

The Evolution of GIS: A Timeline of Transformation

The Birth of GIS (1960s)

GIS formally emerged in the 1960s when computing enabled large-scale

geographic data processing. Roger Tomlinson is supposed to be the father of
GIS who developed the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) in
1963, to manage Canada's land inventory, land-use and natural resource
data, and earnings. Following this, the researchers in Harvard Laboratory
developed early GIS tools, such as SYMAP and GRID, introducing raster and
vector models essential for modern GIS.

Technological Advancements (1970s - 1980s)

Rapid progress in computer technology fuelled GIS development. In GIS

Software, ESRI, founded in 1969 launched ArcInfo in 1981, revolutionizing
spatial analysis. Data Models came into existence when vector and raster
models became standard for representing spatial data. GIS software
supported applications like urban planning and resource management,
including wetland mapping in the U.S.

Wider Adoption (1990s)

The rise of personal computers and the internet popularized GIS in the 1990s.
Integration of Remote Sensing satellite imagery, such as Landsat data,
enhanced environmental monitoring through GIS. The capability was further
enhanced by integrating Real-time location tracking through GPS-
revolutionized GIS data collection. Web GIS has also been a significant
advancement during this period where platforms like ArcGIS Online and
Google Maps expanded public access.

Big Data and Cloud GIS (2000s - 2010s)

In this decade, technological advancements reshaped GIS applications Like

Open Data Initiatives, where governments released free spatial data (e.g.,
USGS Earth Explorer); Cloud GIS like Google Earth Engine and ArcGIS

39
Block -1
………………………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals
.…………………..…………………………………………
Online facilitated collaborative data analysis; and collection and integration of
Real-Time Data like IoT and drone integration improved decision-making for
disaster management and public safety.

Modern GIS (2020s and Beyond)

In the present decade, GIS now leverages cutting-edge technologies to solve

global challenges through AI & Machine Learning (like monitoring and
projection of urban growth and disease outbreaks); Augmented Reality and
Virtual Reality (AR & VR) enabling immersive city planning and disaster-like
flood simulations; and Sustainability by supporting missions like smart cities
and climate modelling.

Evolution from Static Maps to Dynamic GIS

Initially, GIS was used mainly for creating thematic maps that focused on
specific topics, such as physical features or socio-economic data. During
India's early planning phases, thematic maps were essential. However,
traditional thematic maps were static and labour-intensive to modify. Modern
GIS has revolutionized this process, enabling dynamic mapping where
multiple themes can be integrated, analyzed, and visualized simultaneously.
The maps are easily updated as well. GIS stores data in layered formats,
offering unmatched flexibility and scalability for research, analysis, and
planning.

In conclusion, GIS has evolved into a powerful tool that supports

informed decision-making across diverse sectors. Its ability to handle
complex data dynamically has made it indispensable for effective
planning, management, and problem-solving in today's data-driven
world.

Fig. 2.2: Data Layers in GIS.

The Evolution of GIS: Advancing Thematic Mapping and Data

Integration

One of the most transformative advancements in Geographic Information

Systems (GIS) is the capability to modify and update spatial databases in

40
Unit - 2
……………………………… ……………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Definition
tion and Functionality
Func of GIS

realtime. This dynamic feature allows users to instantly retrieve, analyze, and
overlay diverse data types - such as environmental metrics, demographic
statistics, and infrastructure details - to facilitate informed decision-making.
Unlike traditional thematic maps, which were rigid and required extensive
manual effort for updates and data integration, modern GIS tools enable
continuous and seamless updates.

The evolution from static to dynamic and interactive GIS-powered thematic

maps has revolutionized data visualization and analysis. Advanced
functionalities such as scenario modelling, predictive simulations, and trend
analyses further enhance analytical capabilities. This flexibility supports
industries ranging from environmental management to urban planning,
transportation, and beyond.

A pivotal aspect of modern GIS is the integration of real-time data feeds

sourced from IoT devices, satellites, and sensors. This innovation has
expanded GIS applications into domains such as disaster response, smart
city development, and environmental monitoring. By harnessing live data
streams, decision-makers can respond promptly to crises, optimize resource
allocation, and monitor ongoing changes in natural and built environments.

From manually crafted maps to AI-driven analytics, GIS has become

indispensable for sectors like urban planning, disaster management, and
environmental conservation, shaping decision-making globally. The following
table (Table 2.1) gives the brief history of GIS:

Table 2.1: Brief History of GIS

The first Map The use of maps can be dated back to the evolution of human
civilisation. With the development of the subject Geography,
Cartography – the map making started back in hundreds, even
thousands of years. Early maps are used for exploration,
strategy, and planning.
1854 Early spatial In London, physician John Snow mapped Cholera
analysis cases to trace the origin back to one water
source.
Dr. John Snow used mapping to illustrate how
cases of cholera were centred around a water John Snow
pump. Many people thought the disease was
propagating through the air. However, this map
helped show that cholera was being spread
through the water.

41
Block -1
………………………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals
.…………………..…………………………………………
1960 Geographic During the 1960s, IBM led the development of computers with
application improved technology, speed, and design. This period also saw
in computer the early quantitative revolution in geographical research.
science
emerges
1963 The first GIS Dr. Roger F. Tomlinson, who first coined the term
Geographic Information System (GIS). He
created the first computerized Geographic
Information System in the 1960s while working for
the Canadian government- a geographic Dr. Roger
database still used today by municipalities across Tomlinson
Canada for land planning.
1965 Harvard Lab One of the earliest GIS software – ODYSSEY was developed
explores by Architect Howard Fisher in the Harvard Laboratory for
spatial Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis. Many pioneering GIS
analysis scientists participated in exploring the role of computers in GIS
mapping and applications. Notable scientists were Jack
Dangermond, Carl Steinitz, Scott Morehouse, Allan Schmidt,
and Allen Bernholtz.
1969 Design with Ian McHarg’s influential book champions a holistic,
Nature environmentally conscious approach to landscape architecture
published and urban planning. He introduces the “layer cake” method of
stacking information that becomes fundamental to modern map
overlays in GIS.
1969 Esri is With inspiration from the Harvard Lab and Design with Nature,
founded Jack and Laura Dangermond formed the Environmental
Systems Research Institute (E.S.R.I.), now known as Esri. They
begin project work, helping land use planners make better
decisions with an emphasis on protecting the environment.
1972 First Inspired by photographs taken from space during NASA’s
Landsat Gemini IV mission, the US government launched the first of
satellite many Landsat satellites for Earth observation. The program
provides current satellite imagery of the whole world, tied to
geographic points. This becomes a major data input for GIS and
begins the era of remote sensing—changing how we see the
Earth.
1978 First GPS The US launched its first GPS satellite, Navstar I, and achieved
satellite full global coverage with GPS in 1994. Other nations develop
similar Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). With global
coverage, virtually any object can report its position, and the
amount of spatial data begins to grow exponentially.
1981 First Esri Sixteen users attended the first-ever meeting of Esri technology
User users, held in Redlands, California. Attendees represent 11
Conference organizations across the US, such as Woodward-Clyde
Consultants, the US Army Corps of Engineers, Pennsylvania
Power and Light, the Kentucky Department of Natural
Resources, and the Riverside County Planning Department.

42
Unit - 2
……………………………… Definition
tion and Functionality
……………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Func of GIS

1982 ARC/INFO is Esri builds on early GIS tools such as Polygon Information
released Overlay System (PIOS), GRID, and GRID/TOPO. Scott
Morehouse, who worked in the Harvard Lab on ODYSSEY,
moved to ESRI in 1981 and played a key role in the
development of ARC/INFO. This comprehensive commercial
GIS product provides a standardized methodology for
implementing GIS broadly, beginning Esri’s transformation into
a software company.
1982 GRASS US Army Corps of Engineers begins development of GRASS
develops (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System). This open-
source GIS software broadens access to GIS and is still
available today.
1986 In-car Etak develops the first in-car navigation concepts. Mazda’s
navigation Eunos Cosmo is the first car with an automatic navigation
system. Later, real-time GIS capabilities will enable the
possibility of self-driving cars from companies such as Tesla.
1988 NCGIA is The National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
established (NCGIA) is formed as a centre for research in geographic
information and its related technologies. Michael Goodchild
directs the project and emerges as a thought leader in GIS.
1990 TIGER is The US Census Bureau completes the Topologically Integrated
completed Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) spatial
database. The first nationwide digital map of roads, boundaries,
and water, TIGER lays the groundwork for countless business
applications.
1991 GIS goes GIS experiences a turning point, becoming crucial to many
mainstream workflows. Publications like Forbes, Fortune, and Business
Week started writing about GIS.
1995 Britain UK Ordnance Survey, founded in 1791 and still a leader in GIS
digitizes its and mapping, achieves coverage of the entire United Kingdom
maps in a GIS database, digitizing 230,000 maps. Britain becomes
the first country to complete a large-scale electronic mapping
program.
1999 First GIS Jack Dangermond, Dr. Roger Tomlinson, and
Day students celebrate the first GIS Day at Murch
Elementary School in Washington, DC.
Dangermond credits Ralph Nader as the person
who inspired GIS Day, now celebrated worldwide
on the third Wednesday in November during Jack
Geography Awareness Week. Dangermond

2001 1 million GIS Esri reaches 1 million licensed software seats and about
users 100,000 organizations using GIS. The GIS marketplace is
estimated at $7 billion.
2004 National In the United States, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency
Geospatial (NIMA) was renamed to NGA to emphasize the growing
Agency importance of geospatial intelligence, reflecting a broader
(NGA) convergence of imagery, mapping, and other geospatial
information in GIS.

43
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
2004 Web 2.0 The web becomes a more interactive platform, laying the
foundation for GIS to move to the web. GIS can now be
delivered as SaaS in addition to desktops.
2005 Google With the advent of mapping apps like Google Maps and Google
Maps Earth, everyone can now interact with and benefit from GIS
technology and it begins to become embedded in our everyday
lives.
2006 Cloud Amazon Web Services is released, bringing cloud data storage
computing to many organizations. Cloud computing has been developing
for decades but is now freely available, allowing organizations
to scale online operations and store larger amounts of data.
2007 First iPhone Apple’s iPhone launches the smartphone industry. Our phones
can now be both computers and mobile GPS devices, allowing
GIS to be used anywhere by anyone, and for data to be easily
collected on mobile apps.
2009 Digital data The US government shares authoritative, open datasets publicly
libraries on [Link]. Anyone can use these datasets in GIS, shortening
proliferate the time and effort to do geospatial analysis. Esri’s ArcGIS
Living Atlas of the World curates thousands of ready-made
datasets like these.
2012 ArcGIS Esri releases ArcGIS Online, the first cloud-based version of the
Online was company’s GIS software. The system supports better
released collaboration and changes the way many GIS and technology
professionals leverage mapping in their organizations.
2018 AI and GIS The AI team at Esri begins actively bringing together the fields
come of GIS and AI in a pilot project, pioneering the discipline known
together as GeoAI. Machine learning capabilities had been introduced in
ArcGIS as early as 2009. On October 7, 2020, the first deep
learning pre-trained AI model was publicly released within Esri’s
ArcGIS Living Atlas of the World, a repository now containing
more than 75 pre-trained models. AI-driven spatial workflows
excel at automation and making sense of large datasets,
especially imagery.
2020 GIS Johns Hopkins University created an ArcGIS-powered COVID-
supports 19 tracking dashboard that receives over a trillion views. The
COVID-19 online dashboard becomes the go-to resource for monitoring
response the global health crisis. It inspires thousands of similar
dashboards and helps people understand the pandemic,
bringing GIS to the forefront of public knowledge.
Today GIS is GIS is more powerful and important than ever. It has become
everywhere ubiquitous. People make billions of maps every day using GIS.
More than 95 per cent of universities offer a GIS course or
program. Most Fortune 500 companies, national and local
government agencies, and non-profit institutions deploy GIS.

SAQ 4
What are the major points of origin to present form of GIS?

44
Unit - 2 Definition and Functionality of GIS
……………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………
2.6 FUNCTIONALITIES AND CAPABILITIES OF
GIS
2.6.1 Key Functionalities and Capabilities of GIS
The functionalities of GIS are to capture the data including error removal, data
storage and management, data updation, data manipulation, query and
analysis, and data display or visualization. The other functionality is also to
share the data. GIS also functions as a spatial decision support system.

i. GIS Data Capture: A Cornerstone for Spatial Analysis

GIS performs essential tasks such as data capture, storage, analysis,

visualization, and integration. Among these, data capture is fundamental, as it
involves collecting and converting geographic and attribute data into GIS-
compatible formats. The accuracy and quality of captured data directly affect
GIS analyses and decision-making processes. GIS capture two types of data-
primary and secondary.

a. Primary Data Capture

This involves direct data collection using tools and technologies:

 Field Surveys: The data are collected through conventional systems of

manual field measurements and mapping and also using tools like total
stations or mobile GIS apps (e.g., ESRI’s Collector, QField). These
surveys capture accurate ground-truth data, such as field boundaries, and
soil samples for agriculture or socio-economic information.
 Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery, aerial photographs and drone-based
data provide high-resolution raster data for spatial analysis.
 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): Devices like GPS receivers
offer precise coordinates for mapping, such as land parcel surveys.
GNSS-enabled IoT sensors collect real-time data (e.g., air quality or
temperature).

b. Secondary Data Capture

This involves converting existing non-digital data into GIS-compatible formats

through the following processes:

 Digitization: Tracing geographic features from paper maps to create

vector datasets, preserving historical data.
 Scanning: Converting hard-copy maps into digital raster files for further
analysis.
 Importing Digital Data: Integrating existing data from spreadsheets or
CAD files from various sources. For example, Census of India data and
FAO shapefiles provide ready-to-use vector datasets.

Data capture faces challenges in ensuring accuracy, consistency, and

completeness. Field surveys and digitization can be time-consuming and
costly, while diverse data formats pose analytical complexities. Modern GIS

45
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
tools use automation and AI for efficient data capture, feature extraction, and
social media geotag analysis. These advancements make data capture faster
and more accurate, enabling innovative GIS applications across fields like
urban planning, environmental monitoring, and disaster management.

ii. Data Storage and Management

The other functionality of GIS is to store the data in digital format. The files
may be of different types like raster and vector. Further, it may be shapefile,
TIGER, GeoTIFF, DWG of spatial data and flat file, hierarchical, relational,
etc. of attribute data. Management also involves data management platforms
like MsSQL, PostGrace GIS, Oracle Spatial, etc., for better and faster
retrieval and analysis.
iii. Data Updation
Some spatial features and their properties are dynamic and hence require to
be continuously updated for correct results of spatial analysis. This process is
termed as data updation.
iv. Data Manipulation
Data are also manipulated or extrapolated to get some new results or to make
all the datasets compatible with each other. This function includes change of
projection, scale, orientation, etc.
v. Query and Analysis
Query and analysis includes the spatial and non-spatial query for obtaining
the desired results. It also involves multilayered and multi-parameter analysis
to find out the answers or solutions to spatial questions or problems.
vi. Data Display or Visualization
GIS has the functionality of high-quality visualization or display of the final
outputs and can be produced as final output in digital format or print format of
various sizes and scales.
vii. Data Sharing
Due to technological advancements, GIS also works as a data sharing
platform for shared work on the cloud with various end users.
viii. Spatial Decision Support System
GIS functions as a strong tool for quick and scientific decision-making. It is,
therefore, called the Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) or Quick
Decision Support System (QDSS).

Apart from these, the core capabilities of GIS are that it answers the spatial
questions of what, where, why, how and what if from geographical
distribution/pattern to future projections.

SAQ 5
What are the functionalities and capabilities of GIS?

46
Unit - 2 Definition and Functionality of GIS
……………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………
2.7 APPLICATIONS OF GIS
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become an indispensable tool in
diverse fields, offering powerful capabilities to query and analyze spatial data,
integrate it with attribute information, and generate actionable insights. The
major application areas are natural resource management, urban and
regional planning, environmental issues, eGovernance and planning,
transport and business, etc.

1. Natural Resource Management: it includes the preparation of an

inventory of natural resources like land, water, forest and mineral
resources. It maps and monitors land and its quality, soil quality, and
desertification, and helps in its monitoring and planning for restoration. It
helps in mapping and monitoring forest cover; mapping wildlife habitats,
their movements and territories and monitoring ecological threats;
assessing changes in land use; mapping and monitoring water bodies,
their quality and extent, etc.

2. Environmental Studies: GIS plays a critical role in monitoring

ecosystems, managing natural resources, and addressing environmental
challenges. It is an important tool for doing Environmental Impact
Assessment and environmental management. The major applications in
environmental issues are deforestation monitoring by analyzing satellite
imagery, GIS helps track forest cover changes and combat illegal logging
(authorities managing the Amazon rainforest use GIS to plan conservation
strategies). It is widely used in surface water resource monitoring where
GIS tools assist in analyzing changes in global surface water resources
and assessing the impact of human activities and climate change. Wildlife
Conservation is another important area for which GIS maps habitats to
identify critical conservation zones and migration corridors. Its application
in Climate Change Analysis has immense value as GIS models and
predicts climate change impacts by integrating data on temperature,
precipitation, and sea-level rise.

3. Urban and Regional Planning: Urban planners rely heavily on GIS to

manage land use, infrastructure development, and resource allocation.
GIS helps in land use planning by determining optimal land uses by
analyzing factors like population density, environmental constraints, and
zoning regulations; planning transportation networks by designing public
transit systems, optimising routes, and reducing traffic congestion; and
infrastructure and utility development through identification of suitable
sites for schools, hospitals, and utilities. Smart city initiatives in India, for
instance, utilize GIS for better urban infrastructure planning.

4. Disaster Management: GIS is essential for disaster preparedness,

response, and recovery by following activities. It is helpful in mapping
Hazard Zones by identifying flood-prone areas, earthquake zones, and
cyclone-prone regions for risk assessment; rescue operations providing
real-time insights to guide rescue teams during emergencies; and post-
disaster analysis for damage assessment, recovery and rehabilitation
planning. During the 2015 Nepal earthquake, GIS was instrumental in
mapping affected areas and coordinating relief efforts.
47
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
5. Agriculture: GIS has revolutionized modern farming by enabling
precision agriculture and resource optimization. It helps in precision
farming where farmers analyze soil data and monitor crop health using
GIS to optimize irrigation and fertilizer use. Soil Analysis is another area
where GIS maps soil fertility, helping land resource development plans
aiding in the identification of various categories of land for crop selection
and land preparation. Crop Monitoring and acreage estimation are also
very important where the remote sensing data integrated with GIS helps
track crop growth and detect pest or disease infestations and also in
acreage estimation. In India, GIS aids government agencies in predicting
food production and managing agricultural strategies.

6. eGovernance and Planning: GIS is a value addition in eGovernance and

planning for development. It helps in planning, monitoring evaluation and
redesigning the development activities very efficiently integrating Remote
Sensing Data and also GPS.

7. Public Health: GIS supports healthcare delivery, epidemiology, and

public health management by disease tracking, Healthcare Accessibility
and mapping underserved areas, and through Epidemiological studies in
which researchers study disease distribution and its environmental
determinants using GIS.

8. Business and Marketing: GIS enables data-driven decision-making in

business strategy and logistics. It offers tools in customer analysis
(analysing demographic and spatial data to understand customer
preferences); logistics optimization by designing efficient supply chain
routes to reduce costs and delivery times; and market research which
uses GIS in the identification of potential markets and evaluates
competition in specific regions.

GIS's vast applications highlight its versatility and significance in tackling

modern challenges across sectors. From resource management and urban
development to disaster response and business strategy, GIS supports data-
driven decisions and sustainable growth. With continued technological
advancements, GIS will play an even greater role in revolutionizing how we
understand and interact with the world.

SAQ 6
Mention the major application areas of GIS.

2.8 SUMMARY
GIS (Geographic Information System) is a powerful technology that integrates
spatial and attribute data to address complex real-world challenges. It has
become an essential tool for modern planning and management across
diverse sectors, including environmental conservation, urban development,
disaster response, agriculture, public health, and business
[Link] such as cost, limited data availability, technical
complexities, and data privacy concerns must be navigated. Continuous
48
Unit - 2
……………………………………………….…..………….………..……………………………………………… Definition and Functionality of GIS

advancements in technology, the growth of open-source platforms, and

strategic investments in infrastructure are key to overcoming these barriers
and unlocking the full potential of GIS for sustainable development and better
decision-making.

In this Unit, you have studied:

 Definition of GIS,
 Components of GIS,
 Procedure and Workflows,
 Evolution of GIS, and
 Functionalities and Capabilities of GIS.

2.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write major definitions of GIS and explain in detail.

2. Discuss various components of GIS and their importance in detail.

3. Explain the procedures and workflows of GIS.

4. Give a detailed discussion on the evolution of GIS.

5. What are the functionalities and capabilities of GIS? Explain.

2.10 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. The functional definition of GIS may be ‘A system of hardware, software
and procedures involving Manpower to Capture, Store, Manage, Update,
Manipulate, Analyze/Modeling, Retrieve and Display Geographical
(Spatially Referenced) and Tabular Data (Attributes) for solving complex
Real World spatial problems.’
2. The components of GIS are hardware, softwares, data, people and
procedures.
3. Procedures in GIS include Data Collection, Data Capturing,
Projection/Reprojection, Data Preparation and database management,
query and Analysis and visualization or display of output.
4. GIS has evolved from basic static maps to very dynamic forms with smart
and responsive maps.
5. Major functionalities of GIS are data capturing, data storage and
management, data updation, data manipulation, query and analysis, data
display or visualization, data sharing, and spatial decision support systems.
The core capabilities of GIS are that it answers the spatial questions of
what, where, why, how and what if from geographical distribution/pattern to
future projections.
6. The major application areas of GIS are natural resource management,
environmental studies, urban and regional planning, disaster management,
agriculture, eGovernance and planning, public health, business and
marketing, transport and fleet management, etc.
49
Block -1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
Terminal Questions
1. Write major definitions of GIS and explain the definitions. Refer to Section
2.1.
2. Describe various components of GIS and their importance in GIS. Refer to
Section 2.2.
3. Give a detailed explanation about the procedures and workflows of GIS.
Refer to Section 2.3.
4. Discuss in detail the evolution of GIS. Refer to Section 2.4.
5. List out the functionalities and capabilities of GIS and explain each of them.
Refer to Section 2.5.

2.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Tomlinson, R. F. (2003). Thinking About GIS: Geographic Information
System Planning for Managers. ESRI Press.
2. Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W.
(2015).Geographic Information Science and Systems. John Wiley & Sons.
3. CP Lo Lo, C.P. and K.W. Yeung (2009). Concepts and Techniques of
Geographic Information Systems. India: PHI Learning Private Ltd.
4. Burrough P.A . (1986). Principles of Geographic Information Systems for
Land Resource Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
5. Bolstad, P. (2019). GIS Fundamentals, A First Text on Geographic
Information Systems. Sixth Edition, Michigan: XanEdu Publishing Inc.
6. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). Website:
[Link]
7. UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). [Link]
8. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
[Link]
9. Goodchild, M. F. (1992). "Geographical information science." International
Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 6(1), 31-45.
10. Government of India (Department of Space & NRSC).
[Link]
11. World Health Organization (WHO). [Link]

50
 UNIT 3

GIS AS SCIENCE AND GIS

AS TECHNOLOGY
Structure _________________________________
3.1 Introduction Nature of GIS
Expected Learning 3.4 GIS as Science
Outcomes
Nature of GIScience
3.2 Nature and Philosophy of
Science 3.5 GIS as Technology

Nature of Science 3.6 Summary

Philosophy of Science 3.7 Terminal Questions

3.3 Nature of GIS 3.8 Answers

Nature of Geographical 3.9 References and Further

Data Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Till now you are well versed with the definition, components,
functionalities and unique capabilities of GIS in dealing with
geographical phenomena. However, you may still have a question.
What is GIS? Is it a combination of hardware, software, tools etc.,
capable of handling spatial data (or rather geospatial data) to aid
problem-solving and decision-making, or is it a domain of
continuously evolving scientific knowledge? Is GIS just a tool or is GIS
a science? In this Unit, we will demystify the difference between the
terms science of GIS and doing GIS, GIS research and research
using GIS. In Section 3.2, you will learn the basic tenets of science
and understand the philosophy of science. What is meant by the
scientific approach of study? In Section 3.3, we will explore the unique
characteristics of the term geographical i.e., the unique nature of
geographical data. Further, we will try to understand the multiple
perspectives and approaches of GIS. Hitherto you may be
considering GIS only as a system, an efficient problem-solving
environment dealing with unique geospatial data with unique

Seema Jalan
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
functionalities for handling that data. Section 3.4 will introduce a very
exciting dimension of GIS - as a body of knowledge, a science. We
will understand the evolution of the science of GIS, or Geographical
Information Science (we use the abbreviation GISc for this), the
nature of GISc and the key aspects of geographical reality which are
addressed by GISc -the scope of GISc. Finally, we will introduce the
various GIS technologies with a brief overview of recent
developments in Section 3.5. There is a list of references which you
may explore for further understanding of these concepts.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define the nature and philosophy of science and the scientific approach;
 get acquainted with the unique characteristics of geographical data;
 understand the nature of GIS along the continuum from tool to science;
 differentiate between the terms system, science and technology with
reference to GIS; and
 learn about the geoportals and their use.

3.2 NATURE AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

Before we venture into the debate regarding the nature of GIS as a tool
or science, let us try to understand what the term ‘science’ implies.
‘Science’ refers to the knowledge of the physical world and the process
of acquiring that knowledge. The process starts with a question, some
curiosity, and then seeking the answer to that question essentially with
logic and evidence gathered from the physical world. The term
‘science’ may be viewed as a shorthand for a logical and systematic
approach to problems that seeks generalisable answers (Wright et al.,
1997). In simple words, we can say that a scientist explores all the
‘whys and hows’ about the world.

3.2.1 Nature of Science

The nature of science may be defined in the form of the following basic
tenets:

1. The main purpose of science is to acquire knowledge of the

physical world. The objective of enquiry is the generation of new
knowledge rather than concern with outcomes, applications and
uses.
52
2. Science seeks to describe the underlying order of the world in a
simple and comprehensive manner through the construction of
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

theories. Scientists believe that the natural world is a single system

which is controlled by natural laws. Therefore, they strive to
discover these laws and express them as scientific theories,
eventually leading to the postulation of scientific laws. “Theory is
any universally quantified statement proposed for empirical testing;
scientific law is any empirically tested and currently non-falsified
theory” (Hickey, 2005). A scientific law allows us to predict what
will happen under some specific set of conditions in nature.

3. Science is dynamic. It is not a static collection of facts. No existing

scientific knowledge can be considered as final. Scientific enquiry
is an ongoing process. Existing theories are tested and revised or
replaced as new observations are made. Sometimes there are
radical changes in the scientific ideas. Renowned philosopher
Thomas Kuhn in 1962 termed these radical changes as paradigm
shifts. These paradigm shifts mark the periods of scientific
revolutions when existing theories are abandoned and new ideas
replace the old. On the other hand, some theories withstand the
test of time and remain valid for centuries. Scientific knowledge
accumulates gradually with continuous investigations and
discoveries and creates more and more accurate and detailed
understanding of the world around us. However, no scientific
knowledge is complete and final.

4. Science cannot answer all the questions. Scientific enquiry relies

on logic and evidence. Evidence is derived from observations. An
observation is something which can be sensed through human
senses or can be measured with instruments. Thus, things or
phenomena which can be observed by existing means set the
boundaries of science at a given point of time.

3.2.2 Philosophy of Science

Philosophy of Science is the branch of philosophy which studies what

science is, how it works and the logic through which scientific
knowledge is created.

Choudhary (2016) provides a comprehensive yet succinct perspective

on the philosophy of science. The following section is based on the
deliberations expressed in the book.

Philosophy plays a pivotal role in creating and shaping the intellectual

life of human beings. This is the discipline which deals with the
fundamental questions about our relation with the external world in
which we live; and the fundamental processes at work in nature,
society and our own way of thinking according to which all existential 53
questions find their destiny. The historical development of human
civilisation and culture shows that it has been a quintessential
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
requirement for human life to penetrate and understand the basic laws,
which underlie the world and govern our life.

In this endeavour, humans needed to gain a rational understanding

regarding certain basic questions: what, why and how. What is Reality
or Truth, why does it exist, how can we know it and what should be the
basic insight to comprehend these questions? Whatever insight and
worldview one chooses to opt for this purpose is the philosophy of that
particular person. Hence, philosophy is a basic insight, approach,
worldview and way of looking at the world around us, a vision in the
light of which we try to solve the puzzling questions of life and the
conduct of the world.

Historically, this insight has been broadly divided into two diametrically
opposed schools of thought-materialism and idealism.
Epistemologically these are called as dialectical/ scientific and
metaphysical philosophy. According to the former 'matter' is primary
which is at the root of all events and processes of things but according
to the latter consciousness/supernatural being is primary and
everything happens according to ‘His’ desire.

Accordingly, there are two types of philosophy- scientific and

metaphysical. While philosophy as such is a viewpoint of
understanding the things, events and processes of the cosmos,
scientific philosophy, as the branch of philosophy, is a methodical
discipline. It is an attempt to understand and explain the world we live
in using dialectical methods of thinking and interpreting the world which
is based on evidence and logical arguments. It is also a way of looking
at the universe in which the explanation of everything lies in its own
nature and the cause of the events happening in the world, is not
dependent on any transcendental entity or otherworldly powers. The
chemist does not need any gods, ghosts etc. in presenting his facts.
Every branch of science has to derive its logical conclusion from
empirical facts and evidence.

Summarily, the philosophy of science is one such discipline in which

we study things in the light of empirical data, evidence, critical
experimentation, observations and rigorous reasoning. Accordingly,
there is an inseparable relationship between the philosophy of science
and Geographical Information Science.

SAQ 1
Explain the basic tenets of scientific philosophy.

54
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

3.3 NATURE OF GIS

In previous Units, we have been introduced to different perspectives
regarding definitions of GIS. Some definitions are tool-based, others
are data-based or organisation-based. The tool-base perspective
defines GIS as a powerful set of tools or information technology for
collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming, analysing and displaying
both spatial and non-spatial data from the real world for a particular set
of purposes” (Burrough and McDonnell, 1998; Parker, 1988). Chang
(2008) defines GIS as a computer system for capturing, storing,
querying, analysing, and displaying geospatial data – data that
describes both locations and characteristics of spatial features. Others
(Smith et al. 1987; Aronoff, 1989) have considered it as a database
system with unique capabilities for handling spatial data in a computer-
based problem-solving environment. The organisational definition
(Cowen, 1988; Carter, 1989; Chang, 2008) conceives GIS as a
decision support system, an institutional entity - an organisational
structure that integrates technology with a database having expert
professionals capable of dealing with spatially referenced data in a
problem-solving environment. Some other definitions consider GIS to
imply GIS data, i.e., digital representation of geographical aspects of
the world.

The varied definitions raise many questions in our minds – what

exactly is the nature of GIS? Is it a computer system? Or is it a tool? Is
it a technology? Or is it a science? In this section, first, we will
understand the nature of geographical data that GIS deals with, and
then the nature of GIS that deals with this data.

3.3.1 Nature of Geographical Data

Three unique characteristics of geographical or spatial data, i.e., the

data which pertains to the surface or near the surface of the Earth,
make it distinct – (1) it pertains to a location, and its location can be
defined with respect to a coordinate system, (2) it has characteristics
or attributes which are unrelated to its location, and (3) it has
interrelationships with other geographical features or phenomena
(topology).

Besides the above, Goodchild (1992) and Goodchild et al. (2011)

underline some distinct characteristics of geographic problems or data
per se which necessitate unique capabilities of GIS as a distinct
branch of information systems. These may be summarised as under:
55
1. Multiplicity of Conceptual Models: Some of the geographical
phenomena are continuous. If we want to define any location in the
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
real world, it is defined as x, y (longitude and latitude). In principle,
the definition of exact location may require unlimited precision. The
database modelling of the surface of the Earth may have an infinite
number of tuples (x,y,z) where z is the topographic elevation. For
other applications, say network analysis, only the location of
transport nodes may be required which are discrete locations.
However, if the location of the nodes is defined relatively along a
continuum of road links and nodes, the definition may still require
an infinite number of tuples. Thus, there is a multiplicity of
conceptual models for the same geographical reality and the
nature of GIS data depends on the choice of the model for a given
phenomenon.

2. Spatial Dependence: Spatial dependence is another feature of

spatial data. The concept is best explained by the Tobler’s ‘First
Law of Geography’. W.R. Tobler (1930-2018) was an American-
Swiss geographer and cartographer. He proposed the concept of
spatial autocorrelation in the form of this Law, stating that
“Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more
related than distant things” (Tobler, 1970). This law suggests that
geographically close objects or phenomena are likely to be similar
than those which are farther apart. This implies that proximate
objects or phenomena possess similar attributes as they have
some kind of spatial relationship or they influence each other.

3. Measurement on Curved Earth: Geographical data pertain to

locations on a spherical Earth. Conventionally, for all purposes, the
spherical Earth is portrayed on a flat surface using map
projections. However, this conversion is bound to introduce some
distortions in any of the properties – distance, shape, area or
direction. Thus, GIS data face a distinctive challenge of analysing
data and modelling the processes on the curved surface of the
sphere or, more precisely, the spheroid.

4. Scale: The scale of a geographical problem may range from local

through regional to global. Accordingly, the level of detail of
geographical data may range from building level to an entire nation
or globe. For Eg., for any planning related to disaster or utility
management, building-level detail may be required. For monitoring
and management of an epidemic like the recent COVID pandemic,
it may be required to analyse the diffusion at the national or global
scale.

5. Purpose: Some problems are strictly applied in nature and may

require immediate solutions. E.g., evacuation of residents in a
56 flooded area or fire incident. On the other hand, there may be
problems which are driven by human curiosity to understand the
world. For instance, the use of GIS for studying the movement of
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

tectonic plates through Continuous Operating Reference Stations

(CORS) (Kashyap et al.). The latter is often regarded as the
domain of science.

6. Time Scale: Some geographical problems need immediate

redressal, i.e., have operational significance for an organisation.
For instance, traffic management, fleet management by logistic
companies, or the decision to deploy patrolling teams for crime
control. Others may be tactical relating to decisions in the near
future – having medium-term significance viz. use of GIS for
precision agriculture. Yet other problems are strategic which relate
to long-term planning. E.g., when a retail store has to devise a plan
to expand its store network. For other geographical problems like
human migration or environmental degradation, the timescale may
be much longer than a human lifetime.

7. Dynamicity: The real world is extremely dynamic and complex.

Accordingly, geographical data is also highly dynamic. Thus,
geographic databases are transactional, meaning that they need
continuous updates.

3.3.2 Nature of GIS

Given the complexity, dynamicity and multi-dimensionality of

geographical or spatial data (spatial is commonly used synonymously
with geospatial which is a more precise term applied to spatial at or
near Earth’s surface, while spatial may refer to a space beyond the
Earth’s surface too), the nature of GIS is no less complex. Goodchild et
al. (2011) outline the nature of GIS as under:

“Geographic information systems are computer-based systems for

storing and processing geographic information. They are tools that
improve their efficiency and effectiveness in handling information about
geographic objects and events. They can be used to carry out many
useful tasks, including storing vast amounts of geographic information
in databases, conducting analytical operations in a fraction of the time
it would take to do it by hand, and automating the process of making
useful maps.”

However, the scope of GIS does not end here but extends much
beyond just being a computer system, its unique functionalities and
applications. GIS as a system evolves out of Geographic Information
Science (henceforth we refer to it as GISc to differentiate it from
GISystem) which refers to the scientific foundation of GIS. To quote
Goodchild et al. (2011) “It provides a framework within which new
evidence, knowledge and wisdom about the Earth can be created, in 57
ways that are efficient, effective and safe to use”.
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
The nature of GIS has rightly been described by Wright et al. (1997) as
“three positions along a continuum from tool to science” – as a tool,
toolmaking and science.

Science and practical 1. GIS as a Tool: GIS is the use of a specific class of software, a
problem solving are not set of hardware and digital geographic data for some specific
distinct approaches, as application. This approach considers the development of GIS
often so considered. tools and methods, or the software, hardware or data
The tools and methods
component of the system as independent of the uses or
employed by a scientist
problems it is used for solving.
in a disaster
management
2. GIS as Toolmaking: This perspective considers specification,
department to predict development, evaluation and use of the ‘GIS tool’ as GIS,
and plan for prevention, inseparably from the substantive problems. Promotion for
management and adoption of GIS, educating prospective users, and assessment
evacuation during of social implications of its use across a wide range of fields and
incidence of a disaster, applications – social, economic, political, etc., also fall within the
say flood, is essentially scope of work and research in GIS.
rooted in the scientific
knowledge acquired by 3. GIS as a Science: GIS as a science deals with the fundamental
the scientists out of their research issues raised by the digital representation,
curiosity to understand visualisation, manipulation, analysis and modelling of
the physical process geographic objects and processes. While GIS by virtue of
and interactions dealing with ‘geographic data’ may be considered to be
between the factors relatively more rooted in geography, the scientific study of these
responsible for the
issues essentially requires a multi-disciplinary approach drawing
occurrence of floods.
upon several other disciplines such as cartography, surveying,
geodesy, remote sensing, photogrammetry, cognitive science,
computer science, statistics, etc. The research problems raised
by the use of GIS and the quest to find their solutions lead the
way to its future development. Thus, GISc provides a scientific
understanding of the Earth and its processes and leads to the
discovery of new knowledge, an essential prerequisite of all
sciences.

GIS is essentially interdisciplinary in nature – in data collection,

integration, analysis, and problem-solving or decision-making - related
to various issues concerning society and the environment. It basically
functions as a tool as well as science as an independent discipline.

SAQ 2
What is meant by spatial dependence in geographical phenomena?

3.4 GIS AS SCIENCE

58
Before proceeding to the domain of GIS as science we will try to
understand what is scientific about information per se or information
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

science. In the simplest manner, information science may be defined Information science is
as a branch of science that deals with the fundamental issues, which not concerned with
arise when information is created, stored, processed, retrieved, only creating,
disseminated and used. Shuman (1992) has provided a more practical handling and use of
definition of information science which relates closely to the GIScience information, but also
its cognition,
as a branch of information science.
conceptualisation,
“…the field of information science may be defined as one that communication and
investigates the properties and behaviour of information, how it is impact on science
and society. It leads
transferred from one mind to another, and optimal means for making
to development of
that transfer, in both natural and artificial systems. Finally, information
knowledge and
science is concerned with the effects of information on people and on furthers our
machines” (Shuman, 1992 cited in Mark, 2003). understanding of the
world around us.
3.4.1 Nature of GIScience

Geographic Information Science (abbreviated as GI Science or GISc

by different scholars) studies the fundamental issues which arise out of
the use of a special class of information, i.e., geographic information.
You will come across several different terms which will seem similar –
geomatics, geoinformatics, spatial information science and
geoinformation engineering. While all these fields study the
fundamental issues arising out of the use of GIS and related
technologies, the approach to dealing with the problems is different.
Like all sciences, transparency (of assumptions and methods),
objectivity (of analytical perspective), reproducibility and verifiability (of
results) are also prerequisites for a GI scientific approach.

The term ‘Geographic Information Science’ was coined by Michael

Goodchild in 1992. While he outlined the scope of the field, he did not
provide any precise definition of the term. In 1994, a group of GIS
researchers constituted UCGIS (University Consortium of Geographic
Information Science), which defined GISc for the first time as “...the
development and use of theories, methods, technology, and data for
understanding processes, relationships and patterns. The
transformation of geographic data into useful information is central to
geographic information science” (cited in Mark, 2003). In 2000, a
detailed definition of the nature of GISc was given by Mark in a report
of the National Science Foundation (NSF) as “a basic research field
that seeks to redefine geographic concepts and their use in the context
of geographic information systems. GIScience also examines the
impacts of GIS on individuals and society, and the influences of society
on GIS. GIScience re-examines some of the most fundamental themes
in traditional spatially oriented fields such as geography, cartography,
and geodesy, while incorporating more recent developments in
59
cognitive and information science. It also overlaps with and draws from
more specialised research fields such as computer science, statistics,
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
mathematics, and psychology, and contributes to progress in those
The definition by
fields. It supports research in political science and anthropology, and
Chrisman (2003)
effectively draws on those fields in studies of geographic information and society.”
summarises the
Goodchild (2009) describes it as “science behind the systems, in other
nature of GISc as “the
words, the scientific knowledge on which GIS is based. That would
organized activity by
which people (1)
include, for example, the various indexing schemes that have been
measure aspects of discovered through research and implemented to improve the
geographic performance of GIS or the algorithms that provide solutions to
phenomena and problems such as polygon overlay or finding of the shortest path.” He
processes; (2) has further included “the set of fundamental issues raised by the
represent these technology or which arise when the technology is employed” - the
measurements, methods used for digital representation of the complexities of real-
usually in form of world objects and processes, scale, accuracy and uncertainty issues.
computer database,
to emphasise spatial In Goodchild (2011), GISc has been defined as “the scientific discipline
themes, entities and that studies the data, ideas, foundations, concepts, structures and
relationships; (3) computational techniques that capture, represent, process, and
operate upon these analyse geographic information.”
representations to
produce more Reitsma (2013) justifies the nature of GIS as a science within the
measurements and to framework of the philosophy of science by examining it on criteria used
discover new for the demarcation of science from non-science. She concludes that
relationships by “in contrast to most other sciences, GI Scientists do not study the
integrating disparate
world, rather the representations of that world. GISc considers how
sources; and (4)
these representations and geographic information, are formed,
transform these
representations to
collected, managed, analysed and visualised, As such, GISc cannot
conform to other exist independently from the other sciences. It exists in symbiosis with
frameworks of entities other disciplines, such as geography and psychology, which guide data
and relationships. collection and other information needs”.
These activities
reflect the larger Based on the above definitions, significant aspects of the nature of
context (institutions GISc may be summarised as under:
and cultures) in which
(1) It is a Body of Knowledge: GISc is the body of knowledge
these people carry
out their work. In turn, which provides the foundation for GIS. It is the scientific
the GIS may influence framework within which GIS as a system evolves; which it
these structures.” exploits and implements. It addresses the generic, conceptual
and operational issues which arise from the use of GIS. It is
distinct from ‘doing GIS’ or using GIS for research or any
application per se.

(2) GISc is a Cognitive Science: For making easy-to-use

GISystems, the visualisation and analytical capabilities of
GISystems must align with human perception of the real world.
GISystems must be responsive to questions such as – ‘How to
60 transform geographical reality into digital representation? How
does the human mind perceive that reality? How do people
think about their surroundings? What type of interface is easy to
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

be discerned by humans?’ Thus, GISc encompasses the

understanding of human perception, intelligence and behaviour.

(3) Geographical Problems Predate GISc: Geographical data,

processes and relationships are unique. Modelling and analysis
of data, and exploring solutions to its problems have always
existed, even before the advent of GIS in mid 1960s. GISc
provides “an environment in which old problems have been
reshaped, redefined and resolved” (Longley et al., 2011). E.g.,
the need for map overlay dates much before the development
of GIS.

(4) GISc drives Technology and vice-versa: GISc evolved out of

the need for technology-aided solutions to geographical
problems. As a branch of science, it continuously develops new
tools and technologies to address emerging challenges. GISc
shall evolve as the world evolves. E.g., the need for new GI
solutions has evolved out of the need to achieve the objectives
set forth before the humanity in form of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) since 2015. The advent of new
technologies, a huge repository of near real-time very high-
resolution earth observation data enable GISc for new
applications, or existing applications with fresh approaches
driving GISc to identify and design methods to solve the
problems addressable using these datasets. Drone technology
has revolutionised the use of GIS for urban planning opening
new frontiers before GISc.

(5) GISc, Ethics, Institutions and Society: The use of GIS raises
several ethical issues. For E.g., the constant tracking of location
using the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) is
ethically questionable as it invades individual privacy. There are
fears that GIS has become too successful in modelling socio-
economic distributions and that as a consequence it is
becoming a tool to “surveillance society” (Longley et. al., 2011).
Similarly, universal access to strategically sensitive military
establishments may raise security issues. GIS representation of
the distribution of various sections of society may favour some
at the cost of others.

(6) GISc is multidisciplinary: GISc supports and derives support

from sciences for which geography or spatial perspective is a
significant source of insight, explanation and understanding.
The boundary between these sciences is fuzzy. Besides
geography, concepts and methods of cognitive science and
61
psychology are essential for understanding human perception;
cartography and geodesy are required for mapping; computer
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
science, mathematics and statistics are required for the
development of tools and algorithms; and the understanding of
social sciences is essential to understand the interface between
GIS, culture and society.

SAQ 3
What is meant by the ‘science’ of GIS?

3.5 GIS AS TECHNOLOGY

GIS technology refers to the integrated realm of hardware, software
and spatial data to create a system with capabilities to visualise,
manipulate and analyse spatial data meaningfully and effectively to
serve the desired outcome. GIS Technologies may be categorised into
four broad types of systems, (1) positioning, (2) data acquisition, (3)
data dissemination, and (4) analysis.

(1) Positioning Systems: The global positioning system (GPS)

and its Russian, European and Indian counterparts are making
it possible to determine the position of objects very cheaply, in
real-time and with high precision. These have been embedded
in mobile devices, wristwatches and vehicles. The technology is
enabling real-time monitoring and analysis of changes on the
Earth’s surface, and tracking of locations for monitoring and
management of traffic, vehicles, flights, wildlife etc. RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) is another important positioning
technology. It enables the tracking of goods from producers to
customers, pets and farm animals, etc. Can you think of some
ways in which GPS technology is being used by you and your
family in day-to-day life?

(2) Data Acquisition: An extremely dynamic technology

continuously acquiring geographic information in the form of
Earth observation data is satellite and airborne remote sensing.
Optical panchromatic sensors are capable of imaging the
Earth’s surface at sub-metre resolutions while multi-spectral
(and hyperspectral) sensors across a wide range of spatial and
spectral resolutions are offering unprecedented capabilities of
differentiation between objects and phenomena on land and
water as well as the atmosphere at an equally wide range of
scale. Radar and microwave sensors are capable of acquiring
surface elevation, and even sub-surface information to some
extent. LiDAR is able to acquire very detailed and precise
62
information of ground cover and tree cover. Drones, Unmanned
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), and ground-based LiDAR are capable

of acquiring 3D models of complex urban forms.

A very significant recent development has been VGI, user-

generated geographical data contributed by the users through
the internet. These contributors may or may not have any
knowledge or training in cartography, geography or GIS. It is
therefore referred to as neogeography (Turner 2006) to
distinguish it from the traditional activities of geographers.
Neogeography is founded on Web 2.0 which represents the
reversal of the initial top-down flow of Web information
(Goodchild 2009) and the two-way, many-to-many interactions
between users and Websites which have emerged under Web
2.0 (Longley et al., 2011). Wikimapia ([Link] and
OSM ([Link] are products of Web 2.0.
VGI has revolutionised the application of GI technology in
planning, administration or governance (g-Governance)in
several areas such as forest fire management, crisis mapping,
tourism management etc. To understand the role of VGI and
Web 2.0 in g-Governance in India you can explore Bhuvan, the
national geoportal of India which serves as the “foundation for
India’s g-Governance toolkit” (Giribabu et. al. 2019) and Bhuvan
Panchayat geoportal of Space-based Information Support for
Decentralised Planning (SISDP) project jointly implemented by
Ministry of Panchayati Raj and ISRO for effective grassroot
level planning with a decentralised approach. Figure 3.1 shows
the dashboards of both the portals. A comprehensive overview
of the use of GIS as technology for g-Governance in India has
been given by Giribabu et al. (2019).

63
 Block - 1
………………………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals
.…………………..…………………………………………

Figure 1. Screenshots of the homepages of (a) India’s national

web geoportal Bhuvan, and (b) Bhuvan Panchayat (SISDP
project). VGI has significantly contributed to the database of
both portals.

(3) Data Dissemination: Starting from the conventional media for

dissemination of geographic information – paper maps, globes,
atlases – the GI technology has passed through the roads of
magnetic tapes, CDs, DVDs, and electronic networks to the
revolutionary platform of geoportals. Till the 1990s electronic
networks wer e used for data dissemination and sharing. By the
were
turn of the millennium, a vast amount of georeferenced data
could be accessed through digital libraries or geolibraries using
search and retrieval functions. A geolibrary refers to a digital
library containing a collection of spatially referenced data which
can be accessed using geographic location as the primary
search key.

The turn of the millennium is also marked by the development of

geoportals. These are web portals providing single point entry
via the internet to a network of linked repositories of geographic
databases, enabling search across a unified catalogue of
datasets housed in their original repositories. In recent years
geoportals have extended the functionalities from data access to
64 geographic services (visualisation, data creation, processing
and analysis)
analysis).. These have assumed a key position in the
national, state or local government SDIs. Geoportals are playing
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

an increasingly important role in sharing and integrating

authentic geographic information generated across government
and private agencies; avoiding redundancy of efforts, wastage of
resources and inconsistencies resulting from limited domain
knowledge on users’ part; saving time and labour; connecting
many data providers to a huge community of users; and
enabling innovative applications in diverse fields by enabling
ease of access to original and thematic data.

The U.S. National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) developed

in 1994 is considered to be the earliest concept of geoportals.
The first formal geoportal in the US was released in 2003 as
Geospatial One-Stop (GOS). Modern geoportals allow a wide
range of capabilities to the users including access to raw data in
multiple formats, metadata, visualisation, map creation, sharing
and exporting created maps in various formats. Open-source
portals like Geoserverallow user contribution of data as well.

In India, Bhuvan is one of the most important national g-

Governance web geoportals. Recently, the Survey of India
([Link] and National Atlas and Thematic
Mapping Organisation (NATMO) ([Link]
have also eased access to data and services through their
geoportals.

Another revolution in the field of GI dissemination has been the

appearance of digital globes or virtual globes (like Google Earth,
Microsoft Virtual Earth etc.) which have not only enabled a
realistic 3D interactive visualisation but also provide data
creation, publishing and some analytical functionalities. The
functionalities have been further extended to the cloud-based
processing of satellite imageries by Google Earth Engine (GEE).
GEE was launched in 2010. GEE hosts the most updated
repository of satellite imagery of the entire globe with historical
images going back more than 40 years. It is also offering cloud-
based analytical and data processing capabilities. Esri’s ArcGIS
Living Atlas of the World hosts global geospatial information in
the form of ready-to-use datasets, maps and analytical
capabilities in an interactive environment for a wide range of
applications ([Link]

(4) Analysis: GIS supports a wide range of forms of data

manipulation and analysis pertaining to an equally vast range of
specialised fields. Some functionalities are targeted at a specific
application domain, such as network analysis for transportation;
65
some are more suited to specific types of geographical
information, such as satellite image processing which is limited
 Block - 1 GIS Fundamentals
………………………………………………………….…………………..…………………………………………
to raster data; some are more generic and used across data
types and applications, such as data overlay.

Analytical capabilities of GI technology support applications

across a range of specialised fields for understanding the past to
predicting the future. For example, commerce uses GIS for
maintenance of inventory, utility management, service delivery
or finding optimal locations for new stores, etc. In science, GIS
enables analysis of trends and patterns of various phenomena
on the Earth, water and atmosphere -movement of tectonic
plates, determining air quality, marine oil spills, spread of
disease, distribution of flora and behaviour of wildlife, etc. In
social science, GIS enables understanding of the social
organisation of society – spatial pattern analysis for studying the
distribution of settlements, patterns and trends of crime
incidents, distribution of particular communities (cluster or hot
spot analysis), etc.

Analysis tools are equally useful for hypothesis generation as

they are for decision support systems. The exploratory and
visualisation tools suggest preliminary insights into the patterns
or changes over time which provide the basis for problem
identification and further investigation. For e.g., a simple map
comparison of wildlife locations on a vegetation layer may
suggest an association between the behaviour of wildlife
species and vegetation distribution. Site suitability analysis and
multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) are extremely useful for
making choices between alternative plans and taking optimal
decisions. In the military, GIS technologies are indispensable for
battlefield control.

Exhaustive discussion on the analytical capabilities of GIS

technology is extremely difficult if not impossible. We will
summarise with the legendary quote from GIS pioneer Jack
Dangermond that “the applications of GIS are limited only by
users' imaginations”.

SAQ 4
Mention the major types of GIS technology.

3.6 SUMMARY
This unit demystifies the ambiguity around the ‘S’ of GIS. GIS has often been
66
considered only as a tool for research. The ‘S’ has been considered to refer to
the set of five components – hardware, software, data, methods and people.
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

We have examined the nature of GIS as a continuum from a tool (system) to

science.
The role of GIS as a science and technology cannot be segregated into non-
overlapping compartments. The three roles of GIS – tool, toolmaking and
science - inform, motivate and reinforce each other. GISc is the overall
knowledge framework within which the challenges of translating the
geographical reality to its digital counterpart, in a form which aligns with
human perception, are resolved. GISc develops tools and methods for users
for conducting scientific research and solving real-world problems. The
technologies of GIS, which include both the tool and toolmaking role of GIS,
motivate GISc for continuous scientific research as new challenges and
scientific questions arise when the tools are employed. New technologies
develop out of GISc, and novel applications and challenges arising out of the
use of new technologies necessitate further scientific research.
In this Unit, you have studied:
 Nature and Philosophy of Science,
 Nature of GIS with Nature of Geographical Data,
 Nature of GIS as Science, and

 GIS as Technology

3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the purpose and nature of ‘science’.
2. Elaborate on the unique characteristics of geographical problems and
data.
3. ‘GIS represents a continuum between tool and science’. Elaborate.
4. Write a brief note on the nature of GIS as a science.
5. Explain the relationship between GIScience, ontology and spatial
cognition.
6. Explain GIS as technology.

3.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. Scientific philosophy is a methodical discipline. It is a dialectical
method of thinking and interpreting the world based on
empirical facts, evidence, reasoning and logical arguments. 67
 Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals
2. Spatial dependence refers to the property of geographically
close objects or phenomena to be more similar than those
which are farther apart. This implies that proximate objects or
phenomena possess similar attributes as they have some kind
of spatial relationship or they influence each other.

3. The science of GIS refers to the scientific knowledge on which

GIS is based. It is the scientific framework within which GIS as
a system evolves, which it exploits and implements. It
addresses the generic, conceptual and operational issues which
arise from the use of GIS.

4. The GIS technologies may be categorised into four broad types:

(1) positioning, (2) data acquisition, (3) data dissemination and
analysis, and (4) analysis.

Terminal Questions
1 Write the basic purpose and nature of science as acquiring
knowledge of the physical world which leads to the generation of
new knowledge. The construction of theories and postulation of
laws, dynamicity and empiricism are the basic tenets of science.
Refer to Section 3.2.

2 Discuss in detail the unique characteristics of geographical

problems and data. Refer to Section 3.3.

3 Write about the nature of GIS elaborating the statement ‘GIS

represents a continuum between tool and science’. Refer to
Section 3.3.

4 Discuss in detail the nature of GIS as Science. Refer to Section

3.4.

5 Explain GIS technologies with their different broad categories.

Refer to Section 3.5.

3.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Aronoff S. (1989). Geographic Information Systems: A Management
Perspective. WDL Publications, Ottawa, Canada.
2. Burrough P.A. & McDonnell R.A. (1998). Principles of Geographical
Information Systems. Oxford University Press, New York.
3. Carter J.R. (1989). On defining geographical information system. In W.J.
Ripple (Ed.) Fundamentals of Geographical Information Systems: A
Compendium. ASPRS/ACSM, Falls Church, Va., 3-7.
4. Chang K.T. (2008). Introduction to Geographic Information Systems. 4th
68 Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, Noida, India.
Unit - 3 GIS as Science and GIS as Technology
………………………………………………….…..………….………..………………………………………………

5. Choudhary S. (2016). दशन की सामा जक भूिमका और भारतीय जीवन ि . Gargi

Publications, Delhi.
6. Chrisman N.R. (2003). Exploring Geographical Information Systems (2nd
Ed.). Wiley, NJ.
7. Cowen D.J. (1988). GIS versus CAD versus DBMS: what are the
differences? Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 54,
1551-54.
8. Goodchild M.F. (2009). Geographic information systems and science:
today and tomorrow. Annals of GIS, 15:1, 3-9,
DOI:10.1080/19475680903250715.
9. Goodchild M.F. (2011). Spatial thinking and the GIS user interface.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 21, 3–9.
10. Giribabu D., Rao R.R., Reddy C.S. and Rao P.V.V.P. (2019).
Coordination with the help of geographical coordinates: g-Governance in
India. Journal of Map &Geograohy Libraries, 0, 1-26.
11. Hickey T.J. (2005). Introduction to philosophy of science. Accessed
online at [Link]
12. Kashyap R., Sharma K., Gnanasunder D., Tiwari H. and Neetumeeta
(undated). Establishment of Continuous Operating Reference Station
(CORS), step towards for accurate, reliable and economical positioning.
Accessed online at [Link]
6/[Link].
13. Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.J. & Rhind D.W. (2011).
Geographic Information Systems & Science. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
USA.
14. Mark D.M. (2003). Geographic Information Science: Defining the Field.
Accessed online at [Link]
Geographic_Information_Science_Defining_the_Field.
15. Parker H.D. (1988). The unique qualities of a geographic information
system: a commentary. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing, 54, 1547-49.
16. Reitsma F. (2013). Revisiting the ‘Is GIScience a science?’ Debate (or
quite possibly scientific gerrymandering). International Journal of
Geographical Information Science, 27, 211-21.
17. Shuman B. A. (1992). Foundations and Issues in Library and Information
Science. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries United Inc.
18. Smith T.R., Menon S., Starr J.L. and Estes J.E. (1987). Requirements
and principles for the implementation and construction of large-scale
geographic information systems. International Journal of Geographical
Information Systems, 1, 13-31.
19. Tobler W.R. (1970). A computer movie simulating urban growth in the
69
Detroit region. Economic Geography. 46: 234–240. doi:10.2307/143141.
JSTOR.
 Block - 1
………………………………………………………….…………………..………………………………………… GIS Fundamentals
20. Turner A. (2006). Introduction to Neogeography. O’Reilly Media. Inc.
21. Wright D.J., Goodchild M.F. & Proctor J.D. (1997). Demystifying the
persistent ambiguity of GIS as “Tool” versus “Science”. The Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, 87 (2), 346-362.

70
 UNIT 4

RELEVANCE, RECENT TRENDS

AND FUTURE OF GIS
Structure
4.1 Introduction 4.5 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 4.6 Terminal Questions
4.2 Relevance of GIS 4.7 Answers
4.3 Recent Trends of GIS 4.8 References and Further
4.4 Future of GIS Reading

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Geographical Information System is an inseparable component of Geography
as a tool of it. It is called the science of ‘where’. This course at the
postgraduate level will empower the students and upscale their skills for
further research and job avenues. You have studied geography and GIS, the
definition and functionality of GIS and GIS as science and GIS as technology
in the previous units of this Block as a preliminary foundation. In this Unit,
attempts have been made to discuss the relevance of GIS, recent trends in
GIS and the future of GIS as there has been a rapid evolution of this
technology because of advancement in contributing disciplines or
technologies and growing issues related to environment and society.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the relevance of GIS,
 discuss the recent trends of GIS, and
 get exposure to the future of GIS.

4.2 RELEVANCE OF GIS

GIS Technology in the present times dates back to around the mid-1960s and
has gone through substantial growth, particularly in the last 30 years. GIS has
revolutionised several sectors, industries and markets, such as infrastructure,
environment, utilities, and even social well-being. It has not only changed
71
Monika Kannan
Block – 1 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
asset management and mapping but also played a crucial role in transforming
the virtual world.

GIS provides a foundation for mapping and analysis which is used in science
and almost every day-to-day activity. GIS helps users understand patterns,
relationships, and geographic context. The major benefits include improved
communication and efficiency as well as better management and decision-
making. GIS technology is a crucial part of spatial data infrastructure, which is
defined as the technologies, policies, standards, human resources, and
related activities required to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and
preserve spatial data.

As discussed in the earlier chapters, GIS can use any information that
includes location. The location can be expressed in several ways, such as
latitude and longitude, address, or ZIP or pin code. A plethora of information
can be compared and contrasted using GIS. The system can include data
about people, such as population, income, or education level. It can include
information about the landscape, such as the location of streams, different
kinds of vegetation, and different kinds of soil. It can include information about
the sites of factories, farms, schools, storm drains, roads, electric power lines,
power resources, etc (Baddeley, 2016).

Using GIS technology as shown in figure 4.1, people can compare the
locations of different things in order to discover how they relate to each other.
For example, using GIS, a single map could include sites that produce
pollution, such as factories, and sites that are sensitive to pollution, such as
wetlands and rivers. Such a map would help people determine where water
supplies are the most at risk. GIS technology can be used for scientific
investigations, resource management, disaster management and
development planning (Dykes, J. A., 2001). There are several application
areas of GIS in the present times. Nowadays, many retail businesses use GIS
to help them determine where to locate a new store. Marketing companies
use GIS to decide upon whom to market stores and restaurants, and where
that marketing should be. Scientists use GIS to compare population statistics
to resources such as soil, air and drinking water.

Fig. 4.1: Essentials of Geographic Information Systems.

Source: [Link]
geographic-information-systems/
72
Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………
Biologists use GIS to track animal migration patterns and their movement.
City, state, or central government officials use GIS to help plan their response
in the case of a natural disaster such as a flood, earthquake or hurricane. GIS
maps can plot which areas are in danger, where to locate emergency
shelters, and what routes people should take to reach safety. Engineers use
GIS technology to support the design, implementation, and management of
communication networks for the phones we use, as well as the infrastructure
necessary for internet connectivity (O’Sullivan & Unwin, 2010). Other
researchers may use GIS to develop road networks and transportation
networks, infrastructure, etc. There is no limit to the kind of information that
can be analyzed using GIS technology.

According to the UN Committee of Experts, GIS is on its way to rapid

progress for the following reasons:

Technological Evolution

Development of technologies such as augmented virtual reality,

visualisations, quantum computing, generative AI, machine learning, etc., GIS
is also making rapid advancement.

Increase in User Requirements

Technology users are increasing consistently as it has become a part of our

day-to-day life. With the increase in users, their requirements have also
increased, like demand for real-time data and information, outdoor and indoor
mapping, analysis of demographics, products and services, regional
development planning and smart cities.

Industrial Change

As the industries are growing, their need for more technology is also on the
rise. The change in work profile, new collaboration agreements, and also a
change in the business industry have contributed to it.

Availability of New Data Sources and Analytical Techniques

Varied Data sources and their analysis methods, big data computing, and
digital platforms, all are increasing day by day, leading to high demand for
Remote Sensing&GIS technology.

SAQ 1
Why is GIS very relevant in the present context?

4.3 RECENT TRENDS OF GIS

GIS technologies have completely transformed the world that we live in. In
recent years, Geographical Information Systems have advanced a lot, and
the way we collect, analyse and visualise data has changed and become
more efficient. Developments such as AI-based, drone-based data analysis or
machine learning algorithms have paved the way for more ways for GIS
applications in industries and other sectors.
73
Block – 1
……………………………………………………………… Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
...………………………………………………………
The upcoming trends in the GIS techn
technology
ology are as follows:

Real-Time Data

This GIS technology trend allows the masses to interact with data in real time
(Figure 4.2). Mobile geospatial apps collect, generate and analyse data from
thousands of sources today. Many geospatial fields need this innovation and
analysis for instant accessing spatial-temporal data (Bailey, 1995). Besides,
spatio-temporal applications are useful for marketers, transportation
dispatchers, and decision-makers.

Fig. 4.2: Real-Time Geospatial Data Collection and Visualization.

Source: [Link]

Miniaturization of Sensors

“The Global Geospatial Solutions market is expected to reach $741.65 billion

by 2027, increasing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 15.2%”
([Link] Statistics indicate that miniaturization of
sensors is the driving force of market growth. The small-size sensors are
convenient to handle and are more efficient, cost-effective, easily accessible,
and popular. Using such techno-savvy gadgets helps software developers
improve their users’ experiences using geospatial AI as it may be useful for
feature recognition, image enhancement, and scalable modelling.

Self-Driving Vehicles

The driverless vehicle industry is growing at an accelerating rate in the

present decade. According to various reports, it is on the verge of reaching
$75.95 billion by 2027. Geospatial technologies have played a crucial role in
this process. They enable cars and other vehicles to operate safely using
radar and LiDAR. Access to high-resolution geospatial details powered by
high-precision satellite navigation systems ensures successful navigation
across the world.

74
Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
……………………………………………… ...………………………………………………………………………
Smart Cities Development

Statistics indicate that the revenue of start-ups and business ventures in the
Smart City technology sector is about to reach $30 billion by 2025. Collecting
data with the geospatial is a core for building an efficient Smart Cities
framework. Due to geospatial technology, especially sensors, people will be
able to benefit from a better living experience.

3D and Digital Twins

Digital Twins are becoming popular these days, as they enable an asset-
centric approach helping to model, simulate and predict the performance of
tools, assets, systems, and processes within the urban environment as the
future trends in geospatial technology and information management.

Machine Learning

Machine learning is one of the most popular and promising trends in GIS
technology. It is a key component of spatial analysis in GIS both in networking
and spatial analysis (Pebesma, 2018). Its algorithms identify any changes
and patterns quickly and effectively, giving timely information for quick
decision-making. Applications and Software Tools with Machine Learning
deal with:

 Nonlinear dimensionality reduction and data visualization;

 Physical processes modelling in hybrid models;
 Data analysis and modelling in high-dimensional spaces;
 Data mining and forecasting.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence blended with GIS is a combination of two important

technologies that use spatial data processing and analysis algorithms. This
field attracts several developers and researchers as Artificial intelligence can
bring much use to building and solving GIS-related networking and
application-based issues. AI-enabled GIS technology as shown in Figure 3
consists of GeoAI, AI for GIS, and GIS for AI.

Fig. 4.3: Artificial Intelligence blended with GIS.

Source: [Link]
System_fig1_336409600
75
Block – 1 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
Sustainable Development

Sustainability initiatives are an integral component of every city today. Smart

technologies can help societies, governments and businesses to reduce their
carbon footprint and spread welfare. GIS technology enables us to map out
sustainability plans by strategic mapping, visualizing and analyzing important
statistics. The 2030 Agenda recognizes the value of geospatial information in
making informed, data-driven decisions across the world.

Disaster Mitigation and Response

Integrating advanced GIS technologies can help predict and prepare for
natural calamities. With the Geographic Information System, people can
quickly process large amounts of data to develop action plans and prevent
and save lives. Geospatial data have been used in interactive visual analytics
to track the spread of the COVID-19 virus and several other pandemics.

Automation

Automation has become a necessity today, as dealing with large GIS maps
cannot be done without automating them. They enable fast collecting,
tabulating and processing of data. GIS automated systems reduce the risk of
errors, and anonymity and make our work more efficient. The Geographic
Information System is likely to be fully automated and ruled by Artificial
Intelligence soon.

LiDAR

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is one of the upcoming latest trends in
GIS. It is used in various thematic mapping applications, including forestry,
urban planning, disaster management, wreck detection, etc. Researchers
have adopted LiDAR for accuracy, support of autonomous vehicles (self-
driven vehicles), traffic management and mapping backpacks. Statistics
indicate that LiDAR in GIS Mapping size will grow by 25% CAGR from 2020
to 2026.

Augmented Reality (AR) enabled Geospatial Apps

One of the most recent trends in GIS in 2023 is the incorporation of

Augmented Reality. The use of AR-related applications facilitates the users to
visualize 3D virtual content, and in the future, this technology will make our
world more digitized. GPS data and geographical datasets help people to
interact with the environment using AR features.

Subscription-based Software as a Service (SaaS)

Using SaaS GIS tools, businesses can use GIS technology on a subscription
basis and share data in a cloud-based format with users. SaaS-enabled GIS
is a perfect means for remote workers who need to collaborate using the
same tools and data. One can mitigate business risks and analyse
environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance by implementing
GIS tools. Real-time updation of any impediment in the road like an accident
or static vehicle (breakdown) through traffic information is a very useful utility
now through crowdsourcing.
76
Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
……………………………………………… ...………………………………………………………………………
Image/Raster Analytics

Collecting, gathering, storing, and sharing datasets are convenient now with
GIS. It provides the framework to manage imagery from spaceships, aircraft,
drones, remote sensing, etc. One can use these images instantly in different
applications.

GIS in Cloud
Cloud GIS/ GIS
Cloud GIS refers to the applications of GIS and its functionalities and GIS Cloud
database hosted at remote servers located at different locations accessing
Cloud GIS or GIS
through the internet rather than in the local computer or local server. Cloud
Cloud is a GIS based
computing with GIS is extremely popular nowadays, and 94% of enterprises on network of remote
benefit from Cloud services across the globe. Cloud GIS enables flawless servers hosted on the
data acquisition, access, distribution, capture, and IT management. Benefit internet to store,
from these trends and direction of GIS technology, and our custom mapping manage, and analyze
services help one design GIS mapping solutions and models. data.

SAQ 2
a. Mention major points of the recent trends of GIS.
b. What is cloud GIS?

4.4 FUTURE OF GIS

Historically, most maps were hand-drawn, but with the advent of information
technology advanced maps are created with the aid of satellite
technology. Geographic Information System (GIS), uses computers, satellite
imagery and GPS to capture, store, manipulate, analyse, manage, map and
present spatial data (Figure 4.4). GIS primarily uses layers of information and
is often used to make decisions in a wide variety of application areas.

Fig. 4.4: Concept of Geographic Information System.

Source:[Link]
System_fig1_336409600

77
Block – 1
………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………… Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS

An urban geographer and planner may use GIS to determine the best location
for a new fire station, recreation area, city centre, etc., while a biologist might
use GIS to map the migratory paths of birds. We use GIS to get navigation
directions from one place to another, layering place names, buildings,
highways and roads. A major constraint with map-making is, that the Earth is
roughly a sphere while maps are generally flat. While converting the spherical
Earth to a flat map, some distortion and anomalies always occur.

GIS technology plays a great role in our lives in one way or another resolving
most of these traditional limitations. The future of GIS seems to be optimistic
as it serves high accuracy. Many industries and sectors are aware of the
vastness and utility of GIS technologies and have started using geospatial
data in their defined avenues (Sun & Wong, 2010). As data analysis,
Augmented Reality, automated devices, and other trends in GIS are reaching
their peak all around the globe, more transformations are going to take place
in the sectors using these technologies.

GIS is also playing a role in managing the population, disasters, emergencies,

and even health sectors. The future of GIS technologies seems to be very
promising as it is being aided by several other tech-savvy features which
have further strengthened its existing potential. Some of these are:

Integration of Virtual Reality (VR): Virtual Reality technology is expected to

blend with GIS at a rapid pace, enabling researchers to interact with spatial
data in several innovative ways. It finds applications in rural development,
farm management, urban management, environmental monitoring, crime
management, etc.

Expansion of Cloud GIS: Cloud GIS, already widely adopted for its
extensive capabilities of data storage and retention, is expected to see further
expansion due to its popularity as a trend in GIS technology.

Increasing Role of Machine Learning: As machine learning brings comfort

and competence to users, its prominence is anticipated to grow in the future.
GIS aims to make these technologies and trends globally common to ease
the world’s resilience.

A major development is the emergence of web-based GIS or Web GIS. Web

GIS refers to the incorporation of the vast amounts of content available on the
Internet (e.g., text, photographs, video, and music) with geographic
information, such as location and other features. Adding such geographic
information to such content is called geotagging which is similar to geocoding.
The integration of geographic information with such content paves the way for
new ways to access, search, organize, share, and distribute information.
Mapping such blends or web-based applications that integrate data and
information from one source and map it with online mapping applications are
an example of Web GIS. There are several integrations for nearly everything
that can be assigned a location, from a village, a restaurant and a music
festival to one’s own photographs. The diffusion of GIS and the emergence of
Web GIS has increased geographic consciousness by lowering the barriers to
viewing, using, and even creating maps and related geographic data and
information. Though there are several benefits to the generalization and
democratization of GIS, information and technology, it should also be
78
Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………
recognized that there are a few consequences and implications of the same
as well.

The scope of GIS is expected to evolve significantly as GIS become more

accessible and widely disseminated, there will always be demand for new
applications to be developed and innovative technologies to be adapted. GIS
is in access to everyone’s hand now and become the common man’s
application and for day-to-day usage like navigation do not need much
training.

Some major potential application areas for its future use are:

The future role of GIS in urban planning and the development of smart cities
is supreme. GIS technologies play a pivotal role in optimizing city
infrastructure, managing resources, and enhancing overall social well-being
(Tobler & Waldo R. 1970). It is because of rapid urbanization and urban
needs. GIS and Cartographic Modelling is a foundational work in the field of
Geographical Information Systems (GIS). From AI-enabled transportation
systems to real-time monitoring gadgets, GIS is instrumental in shaping the
cities of tomorrow (Tomlin, 1990).GIS contributes to strategically managing
land usage, demographics, growth patterns, city profile, LULC, utility mapping
and predicting disaster-prone areas. The continuous development and
integration of GIS across these sectors highlight its invaluable contributions to
progress and sustainable [Link] is being utilised for weather
tracking, natural resources management, wildlife monitoring, biodiversity
assessment, weather forecasting, flood management, drought mitigation,
[Link] aids in analysing foot traffic, transport networking, optimising store
locations, and studying sales patterns in the retail market as well as capital
movement.

GIS is significantly contributing to the studies of climate change and

environmental studies.

The future of GIS involves leveraging advanced spatial analytics to track and
monitor ecosystems, identify biodiversity, and assess the impact of climate
change on them. GIS technologies in the future will empower decision-
makers, and policy makers towards implementing effective strategies for
environmental sustainability as well. The evolving role of GIS in healthcare is
a key aspect of the future landscape. GIS technologies are increasingly
utilized for pandemic plotting, disease mapping, epidemiological studies, and
optimizing healthcare services. From tracking the spread of floods, droughts,
and infectious diseases to enhancing resource allocation, GIS is instrumental
in addressing public health challenges.

For a layman, the advancements in GIS computing have widened the scope
in which GIS data can be used by commoners. Several organizations are
developing GIS applications that are tailored and customized towards
collecting, analyzing, and visualizing data that are relevant to their line of
work. The Real-time data sets, web frameworks, and GIS computing models
have made it possible to track future disasters and provide timely prediction
models. Platforms like GitHub have also encouraged GIS users to collaborate
and share their repositories for social welfare. It is also easier to develop
applications nowadays since there are several GIS APIs.
79
Block – 1
………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………… Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS

GIS’s future is most promising when it is combined with machine learning. An

excellent example of this is autonomous vehicles or self-driving cars. In the
future, we will see a lot of self-driving cars, like self-driven satellites. The
technology has already started being used in some countries, if not all. It
requires a combination of many different technologies, including LiDAR,
radar, and cameras along with GIS to yield genuine results. The sensors
collect data about the environment around the car, which is then processed
using GIS software and provided to the users. The result is in the form of a
map of the surrounding area, which is then displayed on the dashboard. The
role of GIS here is to evaluate the shortest route, capture traffic, weather, and
road conditions, and navigation aid.

There is much to be expected from a combination of GIS, AI, machine learning,

and deep learning. For example, they can help to create predictive models for
precision farming, mining, agriculture, power resource location identification,
fighting crime, predicting extreme weather conditions and their possible effects
and many more applications. The applicability of GIS in the identification of
solar power potential and their temporal change is shown in Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5: Temporal change of Solar plants in Rajasthan 2018-2023.

Source: [Link]

The more GIS is blended with other emerging technologies, the more useful it
becomes in resolving real-world problems. These technologies include AI,
Deep Learning, Machine Learning, Augmented reality, cloud computing, IoT,
and real-time data acquisition and analysis. However, there needs to be some
regulation on the data that users should have access to, such as open source
and proprietary data sets. In addition, to make sure that we make the most
out of it, the users should have a basic understanding of various geographical
aspects, along with front-end mapping and visualizing tools.

India’s GIS Model

The Indian government intends to launch a new standard for governance and
development, focusing on comprehensive growth and development. This goal
80
Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………
is specifically to minimise inequity, speed up development, and deliver
probable exceptional demographic benefits.

The goal of National GIS in India is:

 To encourage environmental and spatial planning across all sectors,

 To develop a real-time mapping of performance appraisal and redress
structures,
 To acquire scientific mapping of resources, disparities, and needs,
 To generate ways and means for quick and accurate monitoring of the
planning process and the state of development,
 To create a transparent system for societal inclusion, and
 To provide a plethora of opportunities for India in GIS.

India understands that in the dynamically evolving present world, countries

with a rock-hardbase and forward-thinking GIS strategy will set up the pace
and pave the way not just inside their own borders but also on a global scale
for societal welfare. The nation is all set to put its National GIS into place and
make it fully functional in all sectors of the economy. GIS-enabled solutions
for various tasks, including database connectivity and reporting, network
tracking, finding the source of consumer complaints, and connecting with
other business systems are its forefront agendas. GIS technology is on the
verge of an exciting future filled with opportunities for every individual,
company and government. The future of GIS in India beams in a ray of light,
which is promising and holds immense potential for various sectors, as shown
in Figure 4.6: Energy Map of India. Following are some key trends and
possibilities for the future of GIS in the country:

Smart Cities: GIS will play an integral role in the development and
management of Smart Cities in India. It will enable well-organized urban
planning, infrastructure management, resource allocation, and improved
citizen services.

Infrastructure Development: GIS will be contributing to the planning,

design, and management of infrastructural projects, including transportation
networks, utilities and public services. It will further enhance decision-making,
optimize resource utilization, and improve project efficiency.

81
Block – 1 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………

Fig. 4.6: Energy Map of India

Source: [Link]

Agriculture and Natural Resources Management: GIS technology will

continue to be vital in the agriculture sector, facilitating crop protection,
precision farming, crop monitoring, soil analysis, weather forecasting and
water resource management. It also supports sustainable management of
natural resources such as forests, wildlife habitats, and water bodies.

82
Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………
Disaster Management: GIS plays a critical role in disaster preparedness,
response, and recovery. It will aid in timely warning predictions, flood
management, drought mitigation, risk assessment, evacuation planning, and
resource allocation during natural disasters.

Environmental Conservation: GIS contributes substantially to

environmental conservation efforts by monitoring and managing ecosystems,
tracking biodiversity, identifying ecological hotspots, and facilitating
conservation planning and decision-making.

Healthcare and Public Health: GIS has effective applications in healthcare

and public health enabling disease surveillance, mapping healthcare services
and facilities, analyzing public health data, and supporting site suitability
resource allocation for effective healthcare delivery.

Transportation and Logistics: GIS is extremely useful in transportation and

logistics management, optimizing route planning, fleet management, and
supply chain operations. It improves productivity, reduces costs, and
enhances customer satisfaction.

Tourism and Hospitality: GIS assists in promoting tourism by providing

Tourist mapping, interactive maps, tourist information, and location-based
services. It enhances visitor experiences, facilitates destination management,
eases traffic management and supports tourism planning and marketing.

Research and Innovation: GIS is a catalyst for research and innovation in

several fields, including crime mapping, gender-based analysis, pandemic
management, environmental science, social sciences, and geospatial
analytics. It will foster interdisciplinary collaboration and drive new
discoveries.

Skill Development and Employment Generation: The growing demand for

GIS professionals has led to increased skill development initiatives and
employment opportunities in India. The need for skilled individuals in GIS as
technicians, data analysts, and spatial modellers is on the rise.

The applications are endless. But the other major areas are eGovernance,
property tax and revenue monitoring, evaluation and monitoring of
government programmes, reducing/eliminating human-animal conflicts, crime
management, etc.

Overall, the future of GIS in India is positive, expounding across sectors of

development and increasing recognition of its value in policy-making,
decision-making, planning, social welfare and sustainable development.

SAQ 3
How is GIS going to be handy and powerful in future?

83
Block – 1 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………
4.5 SUMMARY
GIS has immense relevance due to growing real-world problems related to
the environment and society, which are of a very complex nature. These
problems are associated with space and GIS answers the questions of what,
where, how, why and what if concerning the location, patterns and property,
process, and projections of future scenarios based on a multidimensional
approach and parameters. With growing social and environmental issues, it
has also evolved to address such issues integrating with the advancement in
other technologies like remote sensing, GPS, Information and Communication
Technologies, and now Artificial Intelligence. Starting with static maps to
dynamic and smart maps having the capability of augmented reality and
virtual reality, Web GIS, Cloud GIS, real-time data inputs and processing, and
now empowered with Artificial Intelligence, it has a great future in addressing
the real-world spatial problems.

In this unit, you have studied:

 relevance of GIS,
 recent Trends of GIS, and
 future of GIS.

4.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the relevance of GIS in the present-day context

2. Discuss the recent trends of GIS.

3. Give a detailed and logical account of the future of GIS.

4.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. GIS has immense relevance due to growing real-world problems related
to the environment and society, which are of a very complex nature, which
helps in solving these problems on a scientific and real-time basis. It also
helps in planning for the future based on projections of future scenarios.
2. a) The major points of the recent trends of GIS are we GIS and cloud GIS
with real-time inputs and analysis for quick spatial decisions coupled with
Artificial Intelligence (AI) integration.
b) Cloud GIS or GIS Cloud is a GIS-based on a network of remote servers
hosted on the internet to store, manage, and analyze data.
3. GIS is going to be handy and powerful in future due to its growing usage
with its enhancedcapability to offer real-time solutions in day-to-day life
and has become more accessible and widely disseminated. GIS is in
access to everyone’s hand now and become the common man’s
application and for day-to-day usage like navigation do not need much
training.
84
 Unit - 4 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………………
Terminal Questions
1. Explain the relevance of GIS in the present-day context, where there are
growing socio-economic and spatial problems. Refer to Section 4.2.
2. Discuss the evolution and recent trends of GIS. Refer to Section 4.3.
3 Give a detailed and logical account of the future of GIS looking at the
growing issues related to social, economic, political, physical and
environmental issues and rapid advancement in science and technology.
Refer to section 4.4.

4.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Baddeley, Adrian, Ege Rubak, and Rolf Turner (2016). Spatial Point
Patterns, Methodology and Applications with r. Florida: CRC Press.
2. Bailey, Trevor C., and Anthony C. Gatrell (1995). Interactive Spatial
Data Analysis. England: Prentice Hall.
3. Dykes, J. A., and D. J. Unwin (2001). Maps of the Census: A Rough
Guide. In Case Studies of Visualization in the Social Sciences:
Technical Report, 43 (43): 29–54.
[Link]
4. O’Sullivan, David, and David Unwin (2010). Geographic Information
Analysis. New Jersey, USA: Wiley.
5. Pebesma, Edzer (2018). Simple Features for R: Standardized Support for
Spatial Vector Data. The R Journal 10 (1): 439–
46. [Link]
6. Sun, M., and W. S. Wong (2010). Incorporating Data Quality Information
in Mapping American Community Survey Data. Cartography and
Geography Information Science 37 (4): 285–300.
7. Tobler, Waldo R. (1970). A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in
the Detroit Region. Economic Geography 46 (2): 234–
40. [Link]
[Link].
8. Tomlin, Dana C. (1990). GIS and Cartographic Modeling. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
9. [Link]
10. [Link]
expected-to-reach-74165-billion-by-2027-growing-at-a-cagr-of-152-from-
2018-to-2027/88925454
11. [Link]
System_fig1_336409600
12. [Link]
13. [Link]
1/chapter/essentials-of-geographic-information-systems/

85
Block – 1 Relevance, Recent Trends and Future of GIS
………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………

86