Master in University Pedagogy and Higher Education

Psychological Processes
Basics
ATTENTION

Professor: Mrs. Gloria Martínez P.

Subject: Psychology of Learning

Prepared by: Berner Otto, Carlos.

Javiera Horta Searle.

June 12, 2010

SUMMARY

There are two perspectives among the authors who have referred to the topic of
Attention: there are those who define it as a process and others who define it as a
mechanism that will the processes involved in the
information processing.
It can be said that attention is responsible for filtering information that
we receive and allocate resources to enable the internal adaptation of the organism in
relation to external demands.
The only way for man to take advantage of his environment is
being aware of what is happening in their environment.

For this, attention has several characteristics: concentration, breadth,

intensity, stability, control, and oscillation. These characteristics refer to
themes such as: the ability to handle more than one task at a time, the amount of
attention given to an object or the ability to maintain this attention for a
long period of time.
Several authors have proposed models to explain the process of attention.
This report presents three: Broadbent (1958), Triesman (1960), and Kanheman.
(1973). The first two presented a filter model: rigid and attenuated.
respectively. Kahneman, for his part, presented his model of limited capacity.
Attention can be classified based on various criteria, with particular emphasis on the
classification according to the mechanisms involved, which separates it into three types:
selective, which refers to how the organism responds to a stimulus excluding the
others; divided, that studies the processes of the organism to attend to two or more
simultaneous tasks; and sustained, which is related to the ability to
remain alert for relatively long periods of time.
Finally, attention is determined by external and internal factors.
the first are related to environmental stimuli and the second to
situations specific to the subject.

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SCHEME.

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 1. DEFINITION AND CONCEPT.

Attention plays an important role in different aspects of life.

of man, so much so that there have been multiple efforts made by many
authors to define it, study it and delimit its status among the processes
psychological.

The phenomena related to attention are very diverse. There are even
authors who doubt that such phenomena can be explained from the same
principles, while others consider that attention functions as a
unitary mechanism, although its structure seems modular (Tudela, 1992). The
the concept of attention is closely related to other areas of study and
research, primarily with perception, memory, thought and
problem solving. (Fernández-Abascal, Martín Díaz, & Domínguez Sánchez,
2009, page 52

Various authors define it as a process and point out that attention

presents phases among which we can highlight the orientation phase, selection, and
support of it. (Ardila, 1979; Celada, 1989; Cerdá, 1982; Luria, 1986;
Taylor, 1991).

Reategui (1999) points out that attention is a discriminative process and

complex that accompanies all cognitive processing, in addition it is responsible
to filter information and assign resources to allow internal adaptation
of the organism in relation to external demands. (Arbieto Torres, 2009, section of
definition, para. 4)

According to Rubinstein (1982), attention modifies the structure of processes.

psychological, making them appear as activities oriented towards certain
objects, what is produced according to the content of the proposed activities that
they guide the development of psychic processes, with attention being one facet of the
psychological processes. (Arbieto Torres, 2009, definition section, para. 6)

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 Tudela (1992, pp. 137-138) points out that "attention must be considered
as a central mechanism of limited capacity whose primary function is
control and guide the conscious activity of the organism according to a goal
determined." Tejero (1999, p. 36) indicates that "attention can be defined as the
cognitive mechanism through which we exert voluntary control over our
perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral activity, understanding that it activates/inhibits and
organize the different mental operations required to achieve the
objective that we aim for and whose intervention is necessary when and to the extent that
that these operations cannot be carried out automatically.
Abascal, Martín Díaz, & Domínguez Sánchez, 2009, p. 52-53

Arbieto Torres (2009) indicates that:

Other authors consider that attention is a mechanism, it is going to set in
marches to the processes involved in information processing,
participates and facilitates the work of all cognitive processes, regulating and exercising
a control over them (García Sevilla, 1997; Rosselló, 1998; Ruiz-Vargas, 1987).
(Definition Section, para. 5).

From this last group of authors, we will focus on García's definition.

Seville (1997):
Attention is a mechanism that activates a series of processes or
operations thanks to which we are more receptive to the events of the environment and
we carry out a large number of tasks more efficiently. The processes or
The mechanisms of operation involved can be of three types:

1) The selective processes. They are activated when the environment demands us to give.

response to a single stimulus in the presence of other stimuli. By

example, to focus on what our teacher says in class and not on
the conversation that takes place at the same time in the hallway.

2) The distribution processes are initiated when the environment

it requires us to attend to several things at once. This clearly exemplifies
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 this is the activity of driving: while we drive, we talk with
our companion, we look in the rearview mirror, we check the
pedals and the gear lever, etc.

3) The processes of maintenance or sustaining attention. They

they occur when we need to concentrate on a task for periods
of relatively extended time. Example: an air traffic controller.

From this point of view, we will define attention as the mechanism

directly involved in the activation and functioning of the processes and/or
selection, distribution, and maintenance operations of psychological activity.
(p. 14).

Like consciousness, intelligence, memory, and orientation, the

Attention is an instrument of experiencing. Therefore, it is a necessary condition for a
To experience normally. Without attention, existence becomes a difficult becoming.
to imagine, since it is inherent to living beings to take advantage of their environment,
even if only to meet their basic needs. This is only achieved if they are
attentive to what happens in their environment.

Attention is the orientation of our psychic activity towards something that...

experiment, allowing thus the experience. Here the stimulus is accepted.
indiscriminately, passively and without effort.

This is something that can arise from external situations.

(sensations, perceptions, etc.) or of internal situations (thoughts,
feelings, etc.). Through attention we become aware of the modifications
physiological and pathological of our internal environment, whether physical or mental, that we

allows for intellectual development. (Capponi M., 2006, p. 203)

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 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION.

Most authors, in their attempt to define attention, offer

a description or they talk about the characteristics of attention. Below
we present some of them:

Concentration. Concentration is referred to as the inhibition of information.

irrelevant and the focusing on relevant information, while maintaining it
for prolonged periods (Ardila, Rosselli, Pineda and Lopera, 1997). The concentration
Attention is manifested by its intensity and by the resistance to divert attention.
to other objects or secondary stimuli, which is identified with the effort that must
putting the person more than in the state of wakefulness (Kahneman, 1973).

The concentration of attention is linked to the volume and the

distribution of it, which are inversely proportional to each other. From this
the fewer objects there are to attend to, the greater the possibility of
concentrate attention and distribute it among each of the objects (Celada and Cairo,
1990; Rubenstein, 1982). (Arbieto Torres, 2009, section of The Concentration, para.
2)

Distribution or amplitude. Many people think that they can only attend to one thing.
every time, but this is a mistaken belief. Even though attention has a
limited capacity that depends on the volume of information to be processed and
based on the effort the person puts in, there is clear evidence that we can address the
same time to more than one event.

The distribution of attention manifests during any activity

and consists of keeping several objects in the spotlight at the same time or
different situations. In this way, the more linked the objects are between
yes, and the greater the automation or practice, the more it will be carried out with greater

ease the distribution of attention (Celada, 1990; Rubinstein, 1982). (Arbieto

Torres, 2009, section on The Distribution of Attention, par. 2

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 The concept of breadth or scope of attention refers to:

The amount of information that the organism can process at the same time
time.

2) The number of tasks that we can perform simultaneously.

Seville, 1997, p. 19

Intensity. This name is known (intensity of attention) for the phenomenon of

which sometimes we are more attentive than others, under the same circumstances.
García Sevilla (1997) says that:

Intensity is defined as the amount of attention we pay to an object.

or task, and is characterized by being directly related to the level of wakefulness and
alert of an individual: the less awake we are, the lower our tone
attention; and, on the contrary, when we are under alert conditions, that is when
that tone intensifies. (p. 20)

It is important to emphasize that the intensity of attention is not always the same.

same, resulting in changes known as fluctuations of the

Attention. When it happens that there is a significant decrease in the intensity of the
attention we are in the presence of a lapse of attention.

Stability. According to Arbieto Torres (2009), the stability of attention 'is given
for the ability to maintain the presence of the same for a long period of
time over a given object or activities (Celada and Cairo, 1990).

-Control. When attention is activated and deploys its mechanisms of

functioning efficiently based on the demands of the environment
we talk about attentional control or controlled attention. Unlike attention
free or uncontrolled, attentional control often requires a certain
effort on the part of the subject to maintain it. (García Sevilla, 1997, p. 21)

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Oscillation. A characteristic of attention is that it changes or oscillates.
continuously, whether because we have to process two or more sources of
information, or because we have to carry out two tasks and is directed
alternatively from one to another. This phenomenon is known as
oscillation or shifting of attention. (García Sevilla, 1997, p.
20)

According to Arbieto Torres (2009), Celada (1990) established that:

The shift of attention is intentional, which differs from simple
disconnection or distraction, this change comes from the nature of the objects that
they intervene, in this way it is always more difficult to shift attention from one object to
another when the preceding activity is more interesting than the subsequent activity.
(Section of Attention Oscillation, para. 2)

3. CARE MODELS.

3.1. Broadbent's Attentional Model (1958).

The first contemporary psychological model of attention was the model of

rigid filter proposed by Broadbent (1958), which is the first model of study
within the cognitive paradigm, and it is the first theory of selective attention.

The model proposed by Broadbent (1958) states that there are multiple channels
through which different information reaches the senses. All the
Information received is processed simultaneously in the peripheral domain.
and are temporarily held in the short-term warehouse. Before the
Information reaches the Perceptual System 'P', there is a selective filter that
processes, determines what information is relevant and allows its passage. This is happening already

that the Perceptual System has limited capacity and when overloaded it loses
effectiveness. Once the information reaches the “P” System, the information is
processed serially and two situations can occur: that the information is
store in long-term memory, or alternatively, that it passes to the Regulation System of

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Response and that through the System of Effectors the response is executed. (Añaños E.
1999, pages 57-58)

Figure 1. Selective Filter Attention Model.

In this model, it is proposed that the selective filter is rigid as "the way of
the performance was "all or nothing", since the information either passed or did not pass, with character

absolute, through the filter (hence its rigid nature)" (Mestre Navas & Palmero
Cantero, 2004, p. 51). This filter acts based on three aspects (Ferrer & Reig,
2008, page 18:

Certain states of the organism such as needs or impulses.

Properties of the stimulus: novelty, frequency, intensity, etc.
Level of motivation of the subject.

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 3.2. Attenuated Filter Model of Treisman (1960).

Anne Treisman (1964) proposed the Attenuation Filter Model by modifying the
de Broadbent. The main change proposed was a flexibilization of the filter. In this
model all the information goes through the filter, where they are assigned
different levels of intensity according to the relevance of the stimulus. Thus, upon reaching the

Information to the Perceptual System of limited capacity processes the most

relevant and thus not overloaded. (Fernandéz-Abascal, Martín Díaz, &
Domínguez Sánchez, 2009, p. 60

Figure 2. Attenuated Filter Model.

Mestre & Palmero (2004) point out:

The factors that determine the flexibility of the filter would be two: on the one hand,
the relationship of meaning between the attended and ignored information. This implies that
the selection does not always have to be based on physical characteristics,
but it could be carried out through a semantic selection criterion. On the other
part, the lowest activation threshold of those representations that were very
significant for the subject. (p. 52)
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 3.3. Kahneman's Limited Capacity Model (1973).

Over time, some authors began to address attention from a

different perspective, one of them is Kahneman (1973). They defined it as "a
limited set of processes or resources that must be distributed" (Fernandéz-Abascal,
Martín Díaz, & Domínguez Sánchez, 2009, p. 63
According to Kahneman, paying attention to one or several stimuli.
... a mental effort... He uses the term mental effort to
design a general capacity for mental work."(Mestre Navas & Palmero
Cantero, 2004, p. 53). "The amount of energy that is available is a moment
data is limited and therefore the functioning of the processes is thus restricted
they elaborate information." (Mestre Navas & Palmero Cantero, 2004, p. 53)

Figure 3. Limited Capacity Model.

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Navas and Palmero (2004) describe this model as follows:
According to this model, it is assumed that in order to carry out an activity and provide it
a certain amount of resources is required for its selection. The criteria of
selection would be determined by the lasting provisions and the intentions
momentary. Once the activity has been selected, the evaluation system
of demands will be responsible for determining how many resources are required
activity. The allocation of attentional resources to one or several activities depends
of two factors, on one hand the level of activation of the organism and on the other,
difficulty of the task. Once the evaluation has been carried out.
demands of the task or tasks, the system responds by providing the quantity
sufficient energy. (p. 54)

4. CLASSIFICATION OF ATTENTION

TABLE N°1. Types of Attention.1

CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA TYPES OF CARE

Involved mechanisms (subject's interest) Selective–Divided–Sustained

Object to which attention is directed External–Internal

Sensory modality involved Visual–Auditory

Amplitude and intensity with which it is addressed

Global-Selective

Amplitude and control that is exercised

Concentrated–Dispensed

Manifestations of attentional processes Open–Covert

Degree of voluntary control Voluntary–Involuntary

Degree of information processing no
Conscious–Unconscious
attended

1
Classification based on the proposal by García Sevilla (1997).
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Below are briefly explained some of the types of attention.
relevant, according to the classification criteria listed in Table No. 1:

4.1. Involved mechanisms

The mechanisms or operations involved when attention is focused on

march, they are the selection, division, and maintenance of mental activity. This
It has led to discussions of three types of attention: selective, divided, and sustained.
(García Sevilla, 1997, p. 35)

This type of classification will be developed more extensively, as it is one of the

more studied and correspond to current trends in the study of attention.

Selective attention studies the processes of the organism to respond to a

stimulus excluding others.” (Puente Ferreras, 1998, p. 200)

We can say that selective attention is the activity that sets in motion and
controls the processes and mechanisms by which the organism processes just one
part of all the information, and/or responds only to those requests from the
environments that are truly useful or important for the individual. (García Sevilla,
1997, p. 88

Añaños (1999), when referring to attentional selection, expresses the following:

It is related to the limited capacity of the attention itself, which
leads to the selection of stimuli. Attentional selection can occur in two ways.
forms:

Selection of the information or stimuli that are presented

(precategorial).
Selection of the response and/or the process to be carried out. A process is carried out.
Once the prior information has been processed (post-categorical). (p. 14)

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 Divided attention studies the processes of the organism to attend and
to respond to two or more tasks that must be performed simultaneously.
Ferreras, 1998, p. 200

It refers to the activity through which they are launched

mechanisms that the organism uses to respond to multiple demands
of the environment. Now it is not about selecting specific aspects of the
information, but rather attending to everything that can be done at the same time. (García Sevilla,

1997, page 115

To achieve this, the subject must have the ability to optimize resources.
attentional, whose achievement can be explained in the differentiation between processes
automatic and controlled processes and the characteristics of their operation.
(Añaños, 1999, p. 15).

Ferrer & Reig (2008) point out the following:

In contrast to the filter and limited resources models, focused on character
selective attention and in the issue of its capacity, Shiffrin and Schneider (1977)
they proposed the existence of automatic and controlled processes to explain
those situations in which people demonstrate a remarkable ability to
to do two or more things at the same time. (p. 27)

Both processes are not separate categories, but extremes of a continuum.

any given task the subjects can operate in a relatively controlled manner or
relatively automatic.”(Fernandéz-Abascal, Martín Díaz, & Domínguez Sánchez,
2009, page 71

In their book Mestre and Palmero (2004) point out:

One of the most influential theories was formulated by Posner and Snyder (1975).
For these authors, a mental process will function automatically if in a
the given moment occurs without intention, without awareness and without interfering with
other concurrent mental processes. In contrast, the processes under control
attention would be executed consciously, intentionally by the subject and
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its execution would cause interference with the performance of other operations or tasks
cognitive.

Table No. 2.
Differences between automatic and controlled processes (De Vega, 1998, p. 150).
PROCESS PROCESS
CRITERION
AUTOMATIC CONTROLLED
Demand for Capacities of
LOW HIGH
Attention
Conscious Effort DOES NOT REQUIRE IF REQUIRED
SE MODIFY IF MODIFY
Flexibility
HARDLY EASILY
Execution Speed FAST SLOW
Effectiveness in Situations of
ELEVATED LOW
Stress
BY MEANS OF THEY ARE NOT ROUTINES
Acquisition
LEARNING LEARNED

Sustained attention, finally, is defined as the activity that engages in

march the processes and/or mechanisms by which the organism is able to
maintain attentional focus and remain alert in the presence of certain
stimuli for relatively long periods of time." (García Sevilla, 1997,
page 140

In general, sustained attention is characterized by the emergence of a

decrease in performance over time, which is seen experimentally.
represented in the called decrement function" (Añaños, 1999, p. 17). For
García Sevilla (1997), the most typical effects that monitoring tasks have on
the attention is:

Distractibility: the subject begins to develop a more scattered attention and

gets easily distracted.

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 Lapse of attention, which is defined as decreases in levels of
activity that is evidenced by a decrease in the intensity of attention.

4.2. Object of attention

Attention can be directed either toward objects and events.

external environments, or towards our own knowledge, our memories,
our emotions and feelings, etc. In the first case, we talk about
external attention, and in the second case of internal attention. (García Sevilla,
1997, page 36

Añaños (1997) refers in the same terms by stating that it is a

classification made based on the object to which attention is directed: the internal
it addresses both the internal processes and mental representations and the external events
"ambiental or proprioceptive" (p. 14)

4.3. Implied sensory modality

Classification related to the sensory modality of stimuli and their

characteristics. The most studied modes of attention are visual attention and
auditory attention; according to Rosselló (1997), there are differences between both modalities,

among which stands out the association of visual information with spatiality and the
auditory with temporality; this difference determines important differences
theoretical models of attention, depending on whether they are based on one or the other
modality. (Añaños, 1999, p. 14)

4.4. Amplitude and intensity with which it is attended

In the section on the characteristics of attention, it was seen that this has a
a certain amplitude that can be more or less intense.

From this point of view, a distinction has been established between attention
global and selective attention. While global attention aims to

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to carry out an organized structure of the parts or elements that make up a
information or a task, selective attention focuses on the analysis of the details
that compose information or a task. That is, selective attention seeks the
intensity and global attention seeks breadth. (García Sevilla, 1997, p. 37)

4.5. Manifestations of attentional processes

This classification is based on the ways in which attention manifests. These

manifestations can be external (open), that is, directly observable; or
internal, that is to say, not directly observable. (García Sevilla, 1997, p. 37;
Añaños, 1999, p. 14

4.6. Degree of voluntary control

Classification made based on the level of control the subject exercises in

the attentional act: involuntary attention is that through which we capture
automatically and reflexively certain stimuli and attention
it is voluntary through which we are able to respond voluntarily
to monotonous or unattractive stimuli. (Añaños, 1999, p. 14)

Voluntary attention is also called secondary. It requires a

"attentional control" which usually requires a certain effort from the individual to maintain it.

In contrast, involuntary or primary attention occurs without mediation process.

volitional some. At the perceptual level, this type of attention fundamentally depends on
of the characteristics of the environmental stimuli themselves; and when it comes to carrying
When completing a task, our performance is mediated by motivational factors and
emotional that, either we focus better and pay more attention, or
although any stimulus or situation distracts us and negatively affects the
execution of the task.

In table No. 3, some examples of typical situations are provided for

some types of attention.

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 TABLE N°3. Typical Situations of Each Type of Care.

TYPE OF ATTENTION REPRESENTATIVE SITUATION

Selective Attending to a person speaking in a noisy environment

Doing work on the computer, listening to the radio and

Divided
waiting for the dryer to finish its cycle

Sustained The work of an air traffic controller is a good example.

External Pay attention to traffic signals while driving

Internal Attend to the internal physical sensations that appear in the

state of relaxation
Visual/Spatial Part of the attention involved in watching a movie

Auditory/Temporal Attention involved in listening to the radio

Global Level of arousal/activation in a subject recently emerged from coma

Open Turn the head towards the source of noise from the previous situation

Try to listen to the conversation of the group we have

Undercover our side discreetly (we direct our attention, but not
observable result

Voluntary/Active Pay attention to the professor's lecture.

To orient oneself towards a loud noise coming from outside of the

Involuntary/Passive
class immediately after hearing it

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 5. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ATTENTION IN GENERAL

Rosselló (1997) considers that attention is determined by two groups of

factors:
External. Characteristics of the stimuli that tend to capture our attention.
attention; the explanation of the type of attention generated is found in the
functioning of bottom-up mechanisms. The most significant characteristics
relevant factors that define the stimuli that generate attention are:
The size
the position.
The color.
The movement.
The novelty.
Oh, the repetition.
Oh, the intensity.
Oh the complexity.
Internals. They include, among others, the following situations of the subject.
(top-down mechanisms) :
Motivations.
Expectations.
Intentions.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE

Books.
Añaños, E. (1999). Psychology of Attention and Perception. Barcelona: Servei
from Publicacions Bellaterra.

Capponi M., R. (2006). Psychopathology and Psychiatric Semiotics. Santiago, Chile:

University Publishing.

De Vega, M. (1998). Introduction to Cognitive Psychology. Madrid: Alianza

Editorial.

Fernández-Abascal, E., Martín Díaz, M. D., & Domínguez Sánchez, J. (2009).

Psychological Processes. Madrid: Pyramid Psychology.

Psychology of Attention

Ferreras Bridge, A. (1998). Cognition and Learning. Madrid: Pyramid Editions

S.A.

Electronic Sources.
Ferrer, R., & Reig, A. (2008). Application of ICT as support for the process of
teaching-learning of Basic Psychological Processes in Subjects of
First and Second cycle of the University of Alicante. Obtained on June 5th
2010, of
Unable to access the content of the provided link.
BASIC [Link]

Arbieto Torres, K. (2009). Attention. Obtained on June 5, 2010, from

Unable to translate URL content.

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