Unit 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition and importance of forages

Definition Forage Cultivation.- Forage cultivation (is a science), is a part of the

applied botany, which includes the study of forage plants that
they provide high nutritional value food products for the sustenance of the
domestic animals and also includes their agronomic management, in the
high yield production.

Importance of forages.- Forages are the fundamental source of nutrition

animal, from the use of its protein, energy, and mineral qualities
it greatly depends on the quality of the final product translated into meat and milk.

They are the most economical source of power available to a

producer to keep their animals. However, it depends on management
suitable for the grass to develop its full potential.

1.2. Forage from a botanical and biochemical point of view

Biochemist

Chemical composition: It refers to the amount of organic nutrients and minerals.

gifts, as well as the existence of factors or constituents that influence the
quality of pastures and forages.

• Protein: it is an essential nutrient in foods that is made up of

repetitive chains of amino acids.
• Crude protein: it is a parameter to measure the quality of forages.

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 • Ethereal extract: they are organic compounds insoluble in water, that can
be extracted from cells and tissues by solvents such as ether, benzene and
chloroform during a fermentation process in the digestive system of the
livestock, which provides energy and facilitates the mobility of other nutrients
its availability for the animal.
• Carbohydrates (glycosides, carbohydrates, or saccharides): are
essential components present in sugars, starches, and fiber; their
The main function is energy supply. They make up 3/4 of the weight.
drying of plants. An important structural carbohydrate is lignin. The
carbohydrates increase their contents with the maturity of vegetables,
being responsible for the incomplete digestion of cellulose and the
hemicellulose and the main limiting factor of forage digestibility.
The type of carbohydrates in the diet and their level of consumption determine...
frequency the level of productive performance of ruminants.
• Minerals: they are inorganic chemical elements present in foods;
necessary for the proper functioning of the metabolic process of
animal. The mineral content in pastures and forages is very variable
since it depends on the varieties of grass, plant species, type and
soil properties, amount and distribution of precipitation and of the
practices for managing the soil-plant-animal system.

1.3. Forage resources of the productive region

Among the main varieties of grass that are sown for cattle consumption
there is Brachiaria, which is a genus of herbaceous plants belonging to the
family of the Poaceae originating from Africa. In Bolivia, the most consumed are the
decumbens, Mombaza, Tanzania y brizantha. These types of Brachiaria can
to be cultivated throughout the territory; everything will depend on the area where
Each of these must be cultivated to make the best use of them.

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The best grass is the one that best suits your needs and the place where
is located.

When the livestock farmer has soil with low pH, Brachiaria brizantha MG5
it is the most suitable since it is a drought-resistant variety, likewise
the marandúes variety is advisable since despite having little foliage it has a
palatability of 100% at 90 days after its germination.

In the valley area, alfalfa is the most used in livestock feed.

but this is previously harvested manually and placed in the feeders
for the animals.

1.4. Nutritional value of forages in animal feeding

A 500-kilo cow needs 70 kilos of grass (forage) to produce 15 liters of milk.

milk. Bolivia has a pasture area of 1.8 million hectares.

Legumes
Legumes belong to a family in the order of Fabales. It includes trees,
shrubs and perennial or annual herbs, easily recognizable by their type of fruit
legume. They are higher cost pastures, a bit complicated at the moment of
adapt to the climate, they have a higher protein level than grass and are more
consumed by the livestock.

1.5. Terminology.-
• Biomass
• Animal load
• Grazing
• Botanical
• Biochemist

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Unit 2
FORAGE GROWING

To decide what type of grasses and forages to establish, it is necessary to select the
more suitable for the land and the environment, considering the precipitation and the
rainy season in the region, the type of soil (texture, acidity, and fertility), the condition
of the field (sloped terrain, combined with stones) and the way to use it. Without
embargo through the selection of the planting method, it is possible to establish the
grassland. If the land is sloped and/or has many stones, it is not suitable for the
establishment of forages. If the land is flat and fertile, it is possible to establish the
high-performance forages. If the land has poor drainage, it must first be improved.
the drainage, then determine the crop.

2.1. Generalities and importance

The success of livestock productivity (bovine, equine, caprine, and ovine) depends on
four fundamental factors that are:
a) Livestock management (type of pasture and animal load),

b) Physical and nutritional characteristics of soils (texture, structure,

real density, depth, pH, percentage of organic matter and nutrient
c) Climate conditions (precipitation, relative humidity, and temperature)
d) Food; the latter is related to the type of food available.
the producer in sufficient quantities per animal unit and must be of good
quality.

2.2. Classification of forages and yield

According to their shape or growth habit, grasses can be classified as
next way:

p. 4
 Classification of pastures and fodders

Forage grasses Both classifications Legumes

By their growth form According to the vegetative cycle Both classifications Herbaceous Shrubby
They are plants that do not They are plants
woody
they develop stems and possess the
characte-
woody and comply characteristics that are

branch
a short life cycle can from the
base of the
trunk y
they reach
several meters of
height

Of erect growth: Annual or biennial pastures Due to its use

They grow vertically they live from 1 to 2 years later For grazing: in livestock
Example. Cut pastures walk through the pasture
Creeping growth: Perennial pastures For cutting: it can be
They grow by crawling they live several years fresh or chopped
Of semi-direct growth:
Between upright and crawling, e.g.
Brachiaria brizantha

2.3. Calculation of area and planting density

To decide what type of pastures and forages to establish, it is necessary to select the
more suitable for the land and the environment, considering the precipitation and the
rainy season in the region, the type of soil (texture, acidity and fertility), the condition
of the field (sloping land, combined with stones) and the way to use it. Without
embargo through the selection of the planting method, it is possible to establish the
grassland. If the land is sloped and/or has many stones, it is not suitable for the
establishment of forages. If the land is flat and fertile, it is possible to establish the
high-performance forages. If the land has poor drainage, it should be improved first.
the drainage, then determine the crop.

For planting, there are cases where botanical seeds are used and in others
vegetative materials.

• Botanical seed. There are three types of seeds:

a. Raw seed: a seed that has not received any treatment.

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 b. Classified seed: seed that has undergone a cleaning process or
removal of impurities or defective seeds.
c. Scarified seed: it is any classified seed that has received a
physical or chemical treatment aimed at breaking, thinning, or softening
the seed head to facilitate water penetration and accelerate the
germination.
• Vegetative material. To ensure better rooting (union between the
soil and the planting material), vegetative material must be selected
(rhizomes, stolons or pieces of stems) that are neither very old nor very
young people, seeking to have it planted immediately after being cut.
If this is not possible, the material should be kept in the shade and moistened.
continuously to sow it the next day or at most within three days. The
appropriate age for cutting vegetative material to use in planting
it is 80 to 90 days of development in the case of cutting grasses.

2.3.1. Area calculation

The area of a geometric figure is all the space that is enclosed between the
limits of that figure.

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2.3.2. Sowing density

There are two concepts, one of plant density and the other of sowing density.

a) Plant density refers to the number of plants (adults) per hectare,

the recommended densities can range from 50 thousand plants per hectare
in bad weather conditions, (bad slopes and soils), up to 100 thousand or more in
the best conditions, for example, under irrigation or low-lying areas.
b) The planting density is the number of seeds that are deposited per
hectare, inevitably some seeds or seedlings are lost due to lack of
germination, lack of vigor, lack of contact with the soil, stones,
clogging, pests and diseases, planter failures, etc.

2.4. Native and introduced species

SEEDING DENSITY
Planting Density (Kg/ha)
Common Name Scientific Name Material
Seeds
Vegetative
1. Grass
Guinea Panicum maximum 6 to 8
Tanzania Guineagrass 4 to 8
Mombasa Maximized Panic 6 to 8
Star pastures Cynodon plectostachyus 1,500 to 2,000
Jaragua grass Hyparrhenia rupha 5 to 7
Gamba Andropogon gayanus 6 to 8
Humidicola Brachiaria humidicola 2 to 3
Grass for Brachiaria mutica 4 to 5
Grass brachiaria, Brachiaria brizantha 2 to 3
Marandu, Toledo
stew fat oMelinis minutiflora 2.5 to 4.5
dark
2. Cut
Taiwan, Taiwan CTPennisetum purpureum 2,000 to 2,500
115, elephant
Cane Sugar 6,000 to 8,000

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 Corn Corn 25 to 40
Sorghum Sorghum vulgare 15 to 20
3. Herbaceous
Forage soy Soybean, variety Taluma 40 to 80
velvet bean Velvet bean 40 to 80
Black-eyed pea cowpea 20
Forage mani Arachis pintoi 10 to 30
Mung bean Mung bean 6 to 8

2.5. Fertilization of pastures and forage

2.5.1. Era

When fertilization is done before planting, weeds absorb the

fertilizers, which lowers the availability of nutrients for the crop. Therefore,
The reason is that fertilization should be done 25 days after the seed has germinated. In the case of

organic fertilizers should be applied before planting so that they

incorporate the nutrients into the soil. For the crops that do not produce fruits, they
you can apply phosphate-based fertilizers (approximately 20 kg).

In high precipitation regions, it is recommended to spray slaked lime (around

of 350 Kg/m2 each year), this in order to correct the acidity of the soil.

Soil analysis must be carried out every 2 years to determine the content of
acidity and trace minerals, if they are insufficient or the balance is wrong, must
Correct oneself. Trace minerals are essential for livestock, but at the same time
time causes metabolic disorders.

The fertilization of forage crops has a standard amount of fertilizers.

To determine this amount, the fertility of the soil must be analyzed.

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Legumes provide nitrogen (N) through bacteria in the
root nodules, the amount of N fertilization can be less if we associate
pastures with legumes.

In addition, the demand for calcium (Ca) by legumes is small. It is necessary

Keep in mind that in the pastures there is a tendency for potassium (K) accumulation.
due to calcium (Ca) erosion in regions of high precipitation, therefore
the soil tends to acidification.

2.5.2. Product

There is a variety of fertilizers used for crops, such as

chemical and organic fertilizers. Based on these characteristics, you must apply
indeed, the fertilizer that is suitable for the crops based on its components.

Components of the Fertilizer (%)

Type of Fertilizer Product
N P K
Individual fertilizer Individual fertilizer 46 0 0
Compound fertilizer Compound fertilizer 12 30 10
Gallinaza 1.4 1.3 1
Organic fertilizer Pig feces 0.91 1.1 0.64
Cow manure 0.63 0.38 0.45

2.5.3. Dosing

Type of crop Type of Dose* Application period Observation

Fertilizer qq/Mz
Complete 10-30- 2 Before planting. Applied in
10 or 12-30-10 the bottom of the
2-3 35 to 45 days after the furrow
Sugar Cane Urea
sowing.
1.5 Starting from the second year and for
Urea
cut.
3 To the sowing.
Complete 10-30-
Taiwan 1.5 30 to 35 days after the
10
sowing.

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 1.5 - 2 After the sowing
Brachiaria Complete 10-30-
2 3-6 months after the
brilliant 10
sowing.
1.5 - 2 After the planting
Complete 10-30-
Gamba 2 3-6 months later
10
sowing.
quintals (1 qq = 100 pounds or 46 kilograms)2

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Unit 3
USE OF FORAGES

3.1. Varieties of grasses and forages

[Link], scientific name and its varieties
A. Pasture

Guinea Grass (Panicum maximum)

It is a perennial grass and forms clumps, with roots

deep, they widen at the crown of the plant
forming a short rhizome.
The leaves are long (120 cm) and wide (5 cm) and very good
distributed in the stems, the height of the plant depends on the
variety, ranges from 0.80 to more than 2.0 m, has resistance to
drought, shade, burning and trampling, crude protein fluctuates
between 10 to 14%.

b) Pasture Tanzania (Panicum maximum)

It is a perennial grass with thick clumps, its stems

they reach up to 1.30 m in height, with abundant production
of leaves (80% of the plant) and a low amount of stem (20%
the plant), has long non-pubescent leaves, its internodes
They are slightly reddish and their stems are soft, the protein
Gross fluctuates between 10 to 14%.

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c) Mombasa Grass (Panicum maximum)

It is a perennial grass with thick tufts, its stems

they reach up to 1.30 m in height, with abundant production
of leaves (82% of the plant) and a low amount of stem (18% of
the plant), has long leaves without pubescence, its internodes
they are slightly reddish and their stems are soft, the protein
gross fluctuates between 10 to 14%.

d) Star Grass or African Star (Cynodon plectostachyus)

It is a perennial grass that produces extensive stems with

long internodes from 5 to 10 cm and abundant stolons up to
5 meters long, has digitate or sub inflorescence
digitized, with slender stems, without pubescence, erect or
lying on the ground forming stolons of 2 - 3 mm of
wide and with the ascending tips by 30 - 60 cm. Greater
toxicity in the regrowth, due to the high content of nitrites.

e) Jaragua Grass or Yaragua Grass (Hyparrhenia rupha)

It is a perennial species that grows in clumps forming a

Dense thicket. Its stems are thin, potentially reaching
up to 2 m in height. It has thin leaves (2 to 8 mm), of
dark green color, the basal leaves are generally
fluffy.
Their flowers are of two types: some male and others female.
both sexes (male and female), the latter are the
that produce seeds, which are light and fluffy, with
twisted strands and fall as they mature, the crude protein fluctuates
between 4 to 7%, it has resistance to burning and drought.

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Fodder Gamba (Andropogon gayanus)

The gamba grass is a perennial grass, ranging from 1 to 3 m high.

height, of tillering growth, being able to reach these,
diameters greater than 30 cm after several years, their
stems are slightly thin, without branching and
terminated in a long and branched inflorescence. The
the growth of gamba grass is influenced by light
period, that is to say, when there is more light on the grass it presents a
greater growth, otherwise, the growth is lesser,
affecting performance positively or negatively; the
crude protein ranges from 10 to 12%.

g) Humidicola Grass (Brachiaria humidicola)

Perennial stoloniferous grass that can reach a

Height metro produces fine, strong, and reddish stolons.
starting from the knots. The leaves are green, lanceolate and
they have sharp edges. It is recommended to handle for 25 days
of rest and can support up to 3 animal units
per hectare during the rainy season, the amount of protein
Gross is very low, oscillating between 4 and 7%.

Pasture Pará (Brachiaria mutica)

It is a perennial grass that forms strong stolons, the

hollow and decumbent stems except for the flower stems
they are upright and can reach 2 meters in height, the
leaves are lanceolate and both the leaves and the stem are
pubescent. It is recommended to manage with periods of
35 days of rest, can support up to 3 units.
animals per hectare, the amount of crude protein varies
between 9 and 11%.

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 Brizantha grass (Brachiaria brizantha)

It is a perennial grass equipped with more or less stems.

erect, it can reach a height of 1.5 m, forms clumps
dense, vigorous, and pubescent, the leaves are lanceolate and
hairy and its inflorescence is a cluster, it grows quickly and
produce good quality forage. They must be managed
rest periods of 35 days. During the rainy season it can
support 3 animal units per hectare, although the
performance is high, the amount of crude protein varies
between 7 and 14%. When it is waterlogged, it produces the
poisonous bacteria that can affect the animal.

Pasto Ratana or Pasto Retana (Ischaemum indicum)

It is a perennial grass, with upright or reclining stems, height

of 30 cm, mattress shape in months of higher precipitation
with mature and unpalatable material, very root system
superficial that does not allow it to extract nutrients or moisture
from the lower layers of the soil, the amount of protein
brute is low oscillates between 6 and 7%.

B. Cut Pastures

Within the genus pennisetum, we can find countless varieties, the

which have been genetically modified to improve the nutritional quality,
palatability, adaptation, and performance of the grass, so that we can
finding numerous grasses that receive the same scientific name, although,
I changed its common name.

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Taiwan Grass (Pennisetum purpureum)

It is a grass that forms clumps, it can grow up to 3.

In height, the leaves can measure 70 cm long by 3 cm wide.
wide and have rough surfaces and edges. The
inflorescence is in the form of a long cylindrical panicle,
pubescent. In high areas, the cut can be made every
120 days, but in low areas every 45 days. The yield is
high, however, the amount of crude protein ranges between 7
and 10%.

a. 1. Purple Taiwanese Pasture or Cameroon

It is a perennial grass with an erect growth habit, and it can

reach up to 3 m in height. The leaves are wide and long
soft and not very long, light green when they are
young and dark purple-green when they are ripe. The
the leaf-stem ratio is greater than the other pennisetum spp,
this grass is a variety from Taiwan, which results from the crossing
of Pennisetum purpureum vs Pennisetum typhoides.
It has the characteristic of high performance in comparison
with Taiwan, it also has better digestibility.

a. 2. Pasto Cuba CT 115

It is a perennial grass with an erect growth.

reaches a height of 3 m, with stems that can reach 3
5 cm in diameter and its leaves are wide and long with
soft villi, light green when they are young and green
dark when they are ripe. Their roots form very thick stems
compact and solid that can reach up to 2 m of
depth. Its inflorescence is compact and cylindrical, measuring 12
15 cm long.

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Corn (Zea mays)

It is an annual grass, its root system is fasciculate and

in some cases the plant generates adventitious roots, the stem
it is cylindrical and has nodes and internodes and in some
cases can reach a height of 3 m. The leaves are
wide lanceolate leaves with central veins, it has two types
of flowers one in spike and the other pistillate. The fruit is a
caryopsis. Corn is used for the production of silages,
using the forage and the fruit.

Forage Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)

It is an annual grass with adventitious and fibrous roots.

deep root system. Cylindrical, erect stems and
solid, alternate leaves that fold during drought.
Panicle inflorescence, small white and red seeds,
brown or yellowish.

d) Forage cane (Saccharum sinensis)

It is a grass with robust clumps, featuring cylindrical stems.

erect and solid up to 3 m in height, solid thick and
juicy, the lower internodes are cuts, the leaves are
commonly elongated from 4 to 6 cm. Inflorescence in
panic, small white, red, brown seeds or
yellowish. The performance is quite high, however, the
the crude protein content is low, ranging between 4 and 7%.

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3.1.2. LEGUMES, scientific name and its varieties
A. Herbaceous

a) Centrosema (Centrosema brasilianum)

It is a perennial herbaceous legume, prostrate to

creeper, 40 to 50 cm tall, taprooted and
vigorous. Thin, creeping, stoloniferous stems, a bit
young ones, they do not become woody at least before
18 months; trifoliate leaves, dark colored. Linear pod,
contains around 20 brown-black seeds.
Contains a high level of crude protein that ranges between 15 and
25%.

Forage Soybean (Glycine max cv. Taluma)

It is a perennial legume, with densely

juvenile and woody base. The leaves are elliptical, oval or
vaguely rhomboid, covered with a dense hairiness.
They bloom, giving rise to inflorescences in compact clusters.
up to 60 cm long.
The flowers are small, slightly pubescent, the corolla
It is white, sometimes with a purple stain. It produces pods.
oblong or linear, sometimes angled. According to the value
nutritious, contains a high level of crude protein ranging between
14-24%.

c) Clitoria or bellflower (Clitoria ternatea cv Tehuana)

It is a perennial herbaceous legume, erect, with a height of

20 to 70 cm, taproots, thin pubescent stems,
leaves elliptical to lanceolate in shape with little pubescence.
Deep blue flowers, sometimes white
4 to 5 cm long; dehiscent pod 5 to 10 cm
long and slightly pubescent with globose seeds, the
crude protein ranges between 17 and 20%, however the
Digestibility is approximately 80%. It is a plant.
with great invasive capacity.

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Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)

It is a fast-growing annual legume that is creeping or

bushy, vigorous growth, height 70 - 90 cm, with seeds
It is a perennial legume that produces abundant runners and
generates new plants at the nodes, which favors a
quick ground cover. The stems, which are initially
lying down, they grow upwards until they reach the
50 cm in height. Tetrafoliate leaves, with ovate leaflets of 4.5
cm x 3.5 cm. The crude protein content ranges between 16 and
20%. Ovals to heart-shaped and flat, and legumes of 10-20 cm
length. Intermediate to late duration (70-140 days). It has
weakness to pests. However, it has high digestibility.

Forage peanut (Arachis pintoi)

It is a perennial legume that produces abundant

runners and generates new plants at the nodes, which
favor a quick coverage of the ground. The stems, which
Initially they are prostrate, they grow upright.
ascending to reach 50 cm in height. Leaves
tetrafoliated, with ovate leaflets measuring 4.5 cm x 3.5 cm. The
the crude protein content ranges between 16 and 20%.

f) Canavalia (Canavalia brasiliensis)

It is a herbaceous legume with an annual or biennial cycle, some

materials of this species can last for more years,
with a creeping growth habit. They have a system of
well-developed roots.
Showy flowers in colors from white, purple to blue, pod
oblong (longer than wide) brown, average of 12
seeds per pod of light brown color. Grows in any type
of soil.

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B. Shrubby

Black Madero (Gliricidia sepium)

It is a perennial tree legume. Its root system

it depends on the multiplication system if it is by seed the root
it is pivoting, while if it is by stakes it is a system
branched root. It grows up to 10 m in height and can
can reach 40 cm in diameter in its stem and produces
many branches. Its leaves are compound, from 2 to 6
cm long, elliptical in shape and green in color in the
surface. The levels of crude protein are very high.
between 18 and 30%, it is used for the protein bank.

b) Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)

It is an upright shrub legume that reaches 1.5 to 2.5 meters in height.

Trifoliate leaves with small glands on the surface.
Axillary clusters up to 10 cm in length, yellow flowers,
sometimes with red stripes. Reddish, compressed, and sharp sheath,
with several globular or compressed seeds. It has the
drought tolerance. Contains high levels of crude protein
oscillates between 15 to 22%, it is used for the protein bank.

c) Marango (Moringa oleifera)

It is a deciduous perennial tree. It exhibits rapid growth.

adult reaches a maximum height of 10 to 12 m. It has branches.
brittle pendants, with cork bark, colored leaves
light green, compound, tripinnate, 30 to 60 cm long,
with many small leaves measuring from 1.3 to 2 cm long by 0.6 to
0.3 cm wide.

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 d) Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)

It is a perennial tree that reaches up to 10 m in height, leaves

bipinnate composed leaves of 20 to 30 lanceolate folios from 7 to 12
The flowers are generally axillary in the form of heads.
composed of yellowish white. The fruit is a pod almost
flattened that carries 4 to 6 seeds of dark brown color and with
fairly defined dehiscence. Upon reaching continuous flowering
blooming and bearing fruit consistently. It has high
levels of crude protein that range between 12 and 25%. It is used
for protein bank, firewood, agroforestry, live fences, etc.

e) Cratylia (Cratylia argéntea)

It is a shrubby legume in open vegetation formations,

but it can become a fickle type of vine when associated
with larger stature plants. This plant branches from the base
from the stem and up to 11 branches have been found in plants that
they are between 1.5 and 3 m tall. This species develops roots
vigorous up to 2 m deep. Contains very high level
of crude protein that ranges from 18 to 30%, is used for the
protein bank. Its digestibility is 60 and 65%. It has the
tolerance of acidic soil and soil that contains a lot
aluminum. However, it does not tolerate humidity.

3.2. Livestock carrying capacity

3.2.1. Grazing

It is defined as the direct consumption of grass by the animal in the field, the concept
include the man during the process for the care and supervision of the animals.

3.2.2. Livestock

The livestock load is the relationship between the number of animals in the pasture and the

livestock surface they occupy in a given time, is to establish the number

the number of animals that a pasture can support per apple without deteriorating.

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a) Rest period

It is the period that the pasture remains without the presence of the animal to achieve the
recovery of the grass and being subjected to a new period of occupation, the period
The rest period varies according to the forage species established in it.

b) Period of occupation

It is the time that animals spend grazing in a pasture.

time varies depending on the total Animal Unit (A.U.) to graze, area and
availability of biomass from the pasture.

c) Calculation of biomass production

It consists of measuring or quantifying the amount of grass or forage available.

determined pasture (measurement), must yield as a result of the measurement the amount
total expressed in kilos of fresh green grass and/or dry green grass (Dry Matter
of pasture - Kg of PVS or MS); that is, the total amount of forage biomass that
It is produced in a specific area of pasture land to feed the livestock.

Since it is impractical and very time-consuming to carry out this measurement in

very large areas, a small-scale measurement is accepted for which only
biomass production is measured in some square meters of area, measuring
randomly several times at different points in the field the produced in a
square meter of area (m2). Thus, the correct expression is in Kg/m2 of MV
the MS.

1m

1m

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3.3. Grazing system

3.3.1. Continuous grazing

This system consists of maintaining a certain number of animals.

permanently in the pasture until they are brought to market. The system
presents advantages
Using this system, animals are more selective: they consume the plants more
succulent and nutritious, they continuously defoliate the new shoots without allowing them
the accumulation of reserves for their recovery. The most desirable species
They tend to disappear and the less desirable ones increase in the pastures.
The appearance of bare soil areas is common when overgrazing occurs.
the meadow; on the contrary, when the load is not properly adjusted, it presents sub-
grazing and there is forage waste. Another disadvantage of the system is that
Animals expend a lot of energy in search of the tastiest species.
Handling animals becomes difficult in pastures that are too large. The greatest
The advantage of the system lies in the low investment in fences, waterers, and salt licks.

The carrying capacity is low, although the daily weight gain per animal can
is greater under continuous grazing. The total production per hectare is low; this is
the least efficient of the grazing systems.

3.3.2. Rotational grazing

This system consists of dividing the total area into three or more pastures in such a way
that while one is busy, the others remain at rest. In this
system, animals move from one place to another when it cannot fulfill
for a longer time their food needs or when a longer grazing
it can be detrimental to the animal or to the pasture. Animals should not return.
the previously grazed pasture without sufficient time having passed
for your recovery.
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The time a group of animals can stay in a pasture varies from
agreement with the season. During the wet period, they recover more
quickly and, therefore, animals can rotate more often; in times
dry, recovery is slower and the period of occupation due to necessity must be
a little longer; however, the period of occupation during this time little
favorable for growth should be shorter; this can be achieved with
reserve pastures or with supplemental feeding.

In dairy cattle, intensive rotations have been frequent with

a high number of small pastures in order to maintain high productions
and avoid daily fluctuations in the production of these animals. In livestock of
meat, it has always been believed that it is not advisable to move them too often from a

move to another because they lose weight; to avoid these movements, some are used
larger pastures so that the animals can graze for a period
longer time, thus requiring a smaller number of paddocks per rotation,
generally between three to five pots.

The rotational grazing system allows for maintaining high load capacities.
promotes better use of fertilizers, facilitates weed control and management of
livestock, eliminates a good part of the selectivity by forcing the animal to remove the
most of the available forage and stimulating the regrowth of new leaves, and
decreases the incidence of internal and external parasites.

3.3.3. Strip Grazing

By using an electric fence, daily or for shorter periods of a

day, sufficient pasture strips are assigned for the feeding of the group of
animals. With this system, a high load capacity is achieved, grazing is
more uniform, decreases the selectivity of the animal, allows enough time
between grazing for grass recovery, the assigned strip can be varied

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 group of animals according to forage availability and the time of year, and allows
the use of portable waterers and salt shakers.

This system has the disadvantage of the cost of the fence and its management, but it is very

recommended for dairy areas, near urban centers, where the price
from the earth is very high and in highly intensive operations. In many
places are being used for beef cattle, with steers being fattened and the
the results are excellent.

Table. Comparison of grazing systems and characteristics (when the grazing area
and U.A. of the cattle are the same).

Method Individual management Labor Cost of equipment and installations

of the livestock main
Grazing Difficult Little Low cost (external enclosure, drinking fountain,
continuous salt seller
Grazing Easy Medium Medium high (outer vicinity and division,
rotating drinking fountain, salt shaker

Grazing in Manageable Much High (outer fence, fencing system)

stripes electrical, induction fence, drinking fountain

Management of the silvopastoral system

A Silvopastoral System is a production option that involves the presence

of perennial woody species, trees or shrubs, that interact with the
traditional livestock components, herbaceous forages, and animals, all
they under an integrated management system.
When we incorporate trees into livestock farms, we not only offer
feeding the animals, we also contribute to improving the climate, restoring sites
degraded, intensify land use, diversify production and generate
higher income.

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If we establish multipurpose trees, we achieve:

Higher productivity: liters of milk/cow, kilos of meat/per animal.

2. Improve total income in the medium and long term.
3. Reduce the risk of economic losses through diversification of the
production: milk, firewood, wood, etc.

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