SURFACE TENSION:

To increase the area of an interface like the G-L interface shown in

the figure, in order to bring molecules from within the solution, must be done
working against the cohesive forces of a liquid.

A pure material is typically considered to be homogeneous throughout.

its volume. This description implies that the matter inside is subject to the
the same forces and conditions as the matter that is found on the surface.

The figure shows that this is impossible; there is no homogeneity of forces.

interior atoms are surrounded by a uniform field derived from the
molecules that are found in their surroundings, while the molecules of
the surface is surrounded on one side by a different environment: solid interface-
vapor. The molecules on the surface are subject to a resulting net force
directed towards the interior of the liquid. Consequently, all liquid surfaces
in the absence of other forces, they tend to contract to a minimum area.

Therefore, the molecules on the surface of a liquid have higher free energy than
the rest of the liquid. The manifestation of this extra free energy from the surface is
it is called surface tension.

Surface tension ( ) is the force that the surface on one side of a line of
1 cm exerts on the surface on the other side of the line and is expressed in dyn/cm

The surface free energy is the product of the surface tension by the area and is
express in ergs/cm2.

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In the figure, there is a liquid film: abcd existing in the area shown.
the film extends a distance D by applying a force F to a new position
determined by the line ef.

Work = Force x Distance

Thus, the work to produce a new befc area is: , but

, .

In the figure, a soap bubble is shown in equilibrium with radius R, if the

the bubble is not in equilibrium, so it will contract until a
balance.

Given that a film has two surfaces:

Total free energy at radius R :

Total free energy at radius R–dR:

The change in free energy is equal to the difference between the two states:

When the bubble contracts, there is an increase in pressure inside the

bubble: P + P ((interior) compared to the exterior (P) that is accompanied by
a decrease in volume V.

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If it is despised:

As the volume V decreases, the energy change.

In the gaseous phase

Equating the change in free energy with the increase in the energy of the gas
we have:

Clearing

If there were a gas bubble in water (the opposite case of a film bubble)
(liquid) in gas there would be only one interface and the change in free energy would be equal to
in this case: (ec. A)

Example: A gas bubble of 2 mm in H2At 20°C there will be a difference of

internal pressure of:

2 mm = 0.2 cm

CAPILLARY FORCES

The rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube and its relationship to this
movement with the forces of surface tension can be explained in terms of
from the equation

When a liquid rises in a capillary tube, for example water, or falls like the
mercury depends on the relative magnitude of the cohesive forces between the
molecules of liquid and the adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the
tube. These forces are what determine the contact angle that the liquid
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shape with the walls of the tube. If this angle is less than 90°, the liquid wets the
a concave meniscus is formed on the surface.

When the contact angle is greater than 90°, a convex meniscus is produced.

In the figure, the adhesion force that water has for glass is greater than the
cohesion forces within the liquid then water tends to spread out in
the glass, forming a concave meniscus and a capillary rise.

The pressure under the meniscus is lower than the pressure at the surface of the liquid.
Thus, the liquid rises in the tube until the weight of the liquid column 'h'
balance the pressure difference: P.

In other words, the liquid column acts as a manometer to record

the pressure difference that exists in a concave meniscus.

The meniscus is considered part of the surface of the sphere with radius R. The angle
The liquid-glass contact is and the radius of the capillary tube is equal to r.

(*)

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The capillary rise is equal to h.

liquid density.
ogas density.

The total weight of the liquid column required to balance the difference of
pressure across the interface will be equal: and the force
per unit area will be: ó (**).
Equaling equation (*) with equation (**):

It often happens that it is worth a number close to 0° and if the vapor phase has a
low density can be disregarded, the formula reduces to:

dyn/cm

The surface tension of a pure liquid or of a liquid containing surfactants

It can be measured with a Du Nuoy tensiometer. It is measured with a platinum ring.
of the radio r that is tied to a torsion balance and is measured directly
force to separate the ring from the interface.

Surface tension acts on the circumference of the ring and since there are 2 sides
of the new surface.

Similarly, surface tension can be measured by observing the rise of

a solution in a capillary tube of known diameter.

Example: It is observed that a liquid rose a height of 295 cm in a capillary tube.

whose internal diameter was 10 microns. The contact angle was zero.

Find the surface tension of the liquid if it has a specific gravity

1.0

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SURFACE TENSION OF SOLUTIONS.

The surface tension of a solution can be explained in qualitative terms.

let's consider an aqueous solution, the substances that markedly lower the
surface tension of water are compounds that have a hydrophilic polar group and
a hydrophobic polar group like fatty acids and alcohols.

The hydrophilic –COOH group of the fatty acid makes the molecules reasonably
solubles. Under such circumstances, the hydrocarbon groups (which are high in
free energy tends to accumulate on the surface coming from the interior
of the liquid).

The conclusion that can be drawn is that a solute that is heteropolar

preferentially adsorbs at the interface and has a non-polar end
oriented towards the gaseous phase, it reduces surface tension.

The opposite phenomenon is observed when the solute is an ionic salt, in this case
Surface tension generally increases above the value of pure water.

Due to dipolar attractions, dissolved ions tend to attract solute ions.

that the sine of the solution. These additional forces make it necessary
extra work to increase the surface area.

In the laboratory, surfaces can be tested to measure tensile forces.

superficial by the method of measuring contact angles.

A smooth surface of mineral is placed in distilled water and is pressed.

gas bubble over it. If after 30 minutes there is no visible adhesion, the
the surface is supposed to be clean, that is to say totally wet with water, meaning there is none
contact between the gas and the surface of the solid (see figure a)

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If an appropriate surfactant is added to the water, after a short period of time
over time the mineral becomes aerophilic and the bubble adheres to the surface
mineral (see figure b).

The contact angle is the result of three tensions and is abbreviated

If the particle is hydrophilic, the attraction between water and solid is greater than the attraction.
water-air. For there to be Gas-Solid contact, the S/L interface must be replaced.
through an S-G interface.

At the three-phase contact point, the Young's equation can be proposed:

or well:

, known as the Dupré equation.

In the figure, a gas bubble is seen approaching a solid. Before the

bubble makes contact with the solid and reaches an equilibrium position we can
write:

For a bubble: free energy per unit area:

For the solid: free energy per unit area:

After the bubble has made contact and established an equilibrium, in the area
of contact, the free energy per unit area is:

Then the change in free energy in the system is: ,

substituting :

(***)

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The equation (***) describes equilibrium conditions for a gas bubble in
rest on a solid.

In a similar way, the condition of equilibrium for a liquid at rest with a solid
it can be described by the equation:

In both equations, the components on the right can be measured and

to be used to calculate the adhesive force of a liquid or a gas to a
solid surface.

But

Substituting in

Cohesion work is defined it is the work to separate into two

columns a same liquid.

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Analysis of Moistenability:

We know that

If the liquid completely wets the solid and there is no adhesion of

solid to the gas bubble
b) If < 90° Cos is (+) , the liquid partially wets the solid.
c) If > 90° Cos is (-) the S-G contact is favored.
d) If = 180° Cos = -1 There is a total attraction for gas.

The angle is a measure of surface energy. When it is zero, the mineral does not
it will float, an angle
no matter how small, it indicates that the mineral has some
Buoyancy. It is not a characteristic of the aerophilic group of the surfactant (collector).
when it is adsorbed on the mineral surface.

Buoyancy is determined by the layer that covers the surface.

The contact angle method has some limitations.

1. The difficulty of obtaining a reasonably pure representative sample in

a small area (0.5 cm2).

2. The probability that the ground sample with abrasives and in water is
representative, any distortion of the network can cause adhesion of
air.

3. The static nature of the test is far from dynamic conditions.

from a well-shaken pulp in which the bubbles rise to the surface.

To cope with these difficulties, the Hallimond tube has been developed. In the
the particles are placed on a porous glass surface, at the bottom of a
tube containing distilled water and reagents. A stream of air is blown into it.
through the porous plate and the mineral particles that adhere to the
bubbles float.

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Upon reaching the surface, the bubble explodes and the load of particles that adhere
The bubbles are floated. The condition is dynamic and similar to that of a cell.
commercial. The floated and non-floated fractions are weighed and calculated.
recovery.

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