UNIVERSITY OF SAN

Carlos from Guatemala

CENTER
UNIVERSITY OF
NORTHWEST
-CUNOROC-
PROFESSOR: ING. [Link]. WILHEM O. ANGEL PRERA
SPECIAL FRUIT CULTURE

RASPBERRY CULTIVATION.

201945009 Elián Isaías Méndez Villatoro Agronomy.

201944859 Jorge De Jesús Díaz Silvestre Agronomy.
201841007 Wilmer Ariel Velázquez Villatoro Agronomy.

HUEHUETENANGO, GUATEMALA MARCH 1, 2022.

Table of contents
I. RESULTS FROM THE RESEARCH OF THE CROP (…).......3
History
1.2. Origin........................................................................................3
Description botany
1.4. Taxonomy
1.5. Bromatology
1.6. Uses...........................................................................................8
1.7. Importance socio-economic for Guatemala and the world. 9
1.8. Statistics of production and finance..............................10
12
1.10. Requirements climatic conditions......................................12
1.11. Cultivars.............................................................................14
1.12. Improvement genetic........................................................17
1.13. Management Agronomic............................................................17
1.13.1..........................................................................Propagation
17
1.13.2................................................Establishment of sowing
18
1.13.3.......Cultural practices (irrigation, cleaning, tissue management)
19
1.13.4..........................................................Fertilization and nutrition
21
1.13.5 Integrated pest and disease management
26
1.13.6.................................................................................Harvest
33
1.13.7 Post-harvest management
34
1.13.8......................................................................Marketing
37
Production costs, revenue projection, and profitability.
37
II. CONCLUSIONS
III. RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................39
IV. REFERENCES (IICA standard).....................................................39

I. RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH ON THE CULTIVATION (...)

I.1. History
The origin of raspberries is uncertain, but it is known for sure that they
situates in Europe. Some historians place it in Greece and others in
Turkey. It is also known that raspberries were already consumed by the
primitive man during the Neolithic who spread throughout Europe
from Greece. It is suspected that it was the Romans who spread the
cultivation of raspberries throughout Europe, as remains have been found in
Roman camps in Great Britain.

The settlers promoted the cultivation of raspberries in the Americas,

being these the ones who introduced this thorny shrub into the territory
American.

I.2. Origin
The red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) has its origins, in wild form,
on Mount Ida of the island of Crete (Greece) and for this reason Linnaeus named the
species such as idaeus. However, other authors suggest that this
species spread from the Ida Mountains in Turkey.
Archaeological evidence shows that the inhabitants of the caves
Paleolithic people already ate wild raspberries. The first description of the
the plant dates back to the 1st century and was created by Pliny the Elder, but the first
written records of the domestication of the raspberry documented it
Palladius, a Roman farmer from the 4th century.
The Romans spread agriculture across Europe, from Greece to Italy, to the
Netherlands and England. The British made this species popular.
during the Middle Ages, although the first known mention of its cultivation
in English gardens is from Turner (1548). In the 18th century, they exported it to
New York and, at the beginning of the 19th century, more than twenty were already being cultivated.

varieties in England and the United States. Subsequently, the cultivars

Englishmen exported to this last country crossed with plants from America
from the North, in order to improve them.

[Link] description
The raspberry is a deciduous woody shrub that is made up of a
evergreen crown that every year, at the beginning of spring, emits several
branches or shoots directly from the crown buds, or from
the adventitious roots that form throughout the entire root system.

Root. The radical system is found in the most superficial part of the soil,
80% is situated in the first 30 cm. It is mostly composed of
through fine roots, and through other thicker and woody ones that serve as support for
the plant. Adventitious buds form on these last ones from which
new outbreaks emerge every year, ensuring the regular production of
cultivation.

Radical system of raspberry plant.

Shoots. The number of shoots per plant can vary quite a bit depending on
the variety and the age, from 2-3 in the first year, up to more than 20 in
adult plant. Depending on the cultivars, the branches are more or less vigorous and
they are covered with a variable number of thorns in most of the
cases. They can reach heights of more than 2 meters, with a
vertical growth and leaning in production with the weight of the fruit.
They receive different names depending on their growth stage, first or
second year, distinguishing two types:

"Primocanes". They correspond to the shoots or renewals that have grown the
first year. In remontant cultivars, they are the ones that produce fruit at the end
of summer at the top end of the cane.
"Floricanes". They correspond to the canes that have already lignified in the second.
year. The remontant and non-remontant cultivars produce fruit on
they

Raspberry plant with Year's shoot in green (primocane) and cane

of the second year, brown in color (floricane).
Leaves. The leaves are alternate, compound and stipulate, formed by 5-7
oval leaflets that are doubly serrated, green on the upper side and
slightly whitish on the underside, with abundant hairiness, and even
light thorns, and very pronounced nerves.

Raspberry leaf

Flowers. The flowers are grouped in inflorescences and are very attractive.
desirable for bees as they have a lot of nectar in addition to pollen.
They are hermaphrodites, white in color, composed of 5 petals with
numerous stamens and pistils, and although the vast majority of the
varieties are completely self-fertile, cross-pollination can
improve the productions. The calyx is persistent and is formed by 5
sepals with variable hairiness.
Raspberry flowers

Fruit. The fruit is formed by numerous drupes aggregated together,

forming a polydrupe around a receptacle, from which it detaches in
the ripening. The vast majority of cultivated varieties produce
red fruits, although there are also some yellow ones,
purple or black. The flesh is juicy and contains a large
number of tiny seeds, usually one per drupe, that do not
they prevent their consumption fresh. The flavor is tangy, very aromatic and
fragrant.

Ripe fruits.
 I.4. Taxonomy
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Subfamily: Rosoideae
Tribe: Rubeae
Genre: Raspberry
Subgenre: R. subg. idaeobatus
Species: Raspberry

I.5. Bromatology
Chemical and nutritional composition The raspberry is an aromatic berry and
juicy. The proportions of its nutrients may vary depending on the
different varieties and the degree of ripeness of the fruit. In general, the
The main element is water (85-90%). Approximately, they contain a
5.0% of carbohydrates, such as fructose and glucose, which constitute the
major component of the soluble fraction. Citric acid (1.72%) is the
second component of this fraction. For the acceptance of the fruit by the
consumer prefers a balanced flavor between acid and sugar. The
climatology also affects the taste; in this way, the fruits that ripen
In dry and temperate summers, they are sweeter and less acidic than those that
mature in humid weather and in extreme heat conditions reduce their
They are an excellent source of vitamin C and rich in vitamins A, E, and
K, as well as folic acid and various minerals such as phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium, potassium, manganese, or iron. Raspberry is among
low-sodium foods, as 100 g of this food only contain
1.0 mg.
They contribute a considerable percentage of soluble fiber (6.5%), for example,
pectins: in red raspberries, approximately 0.1-1.0% of the
soluble fraction is formed by this polymer. And, although from a point
From a strict viewpoint, fiber cannot be considered a nutrient as it is not assimilated.
in the body, it has many health benefits: it is attributed to a
highlighted protective effect of the organism, due to a mechanism of
seizure of potentially harmful substances (cholesterol, bile acids
etc.), which are eliminated along with the feces.

These fruits are also highly valued for their content of polyphenols.
These compounds are a set of secondary metabolites present
in most vegetables. Due to their chemical structure, the
Polyphenols are capable of stopping reactions caused by radicals.
free. Raspberries are especially rich in anthocyanins and acid.
Elagic. Anthocyanins are responsible for their colors.
characteristics and have shown to have significant antioxidant power and
anticancerogenic. Ellagic acid is another type of polyphenol that intervenes in
the blocking of the multiplication processes of cancer cells.
They also provide other phytochemicals, such as beta-carotene (or provitamin A),
ferulic acid and coumaric acid. Recent studies suggest that consumption
foods rich in p-coumaric acid may promote survival in
the gut of beneficial microorganisms for our health.

I.6. Uses
Among the group of small fruits, raspberry is the most well-known and
consumed worldwide, highly valued for fresh consumption by
its excellent flavor, in addition to its vitamin C content,
minerals, antioxidants and high fiber content, as previously mentioned.

Currently, its consumption fresh continues to increase due, in part, to

what can be found in the markets 12 months of the year. But at their
This demand increasingly requires a higher quality of fruit.
The uses of the raspberry, leaves and fruits, are many and varied. The
raspberries are used in the making of sauces, vinegars, jams,
yogurts, ice creams, flavored liqueurs, pastries, juices..., both for the
large industry as well as for artisanal type, resulting in products of
very high quality. The importance in the industrial sector is such that 90%
the world's raspberry production is intended for this use, and
mainly for the production of concentrated juices.
They are also used in phytotherapy, pharmacology, medicine, cosmetics, or
as a source of natural dyes.
Different products made with raspberry

I.7. Socioeconomic importance for Guatemala and the world

Guatemala exported US$7.5 million in 2017, a value that decreased by 32%
regarding 2016. The total imported from the world by the United States is
US$963 million, of which Mexico is the leader with 99% participation.
followed by Guatemala and Canada. The states that import from
Guatemala is in Florida (91%), California (7.6%), Texas (1.2%), Illinois
(0.1%) y Ohio (0.1%).

90% of current raspberry production is allocated for processing

of juices and drinks, Europe being its main producer (especially
Russia, Serbia, and Poland). The United States, on its part, is the main
world exporter of these fruits.
Argentina, Guatemala, and Colombia, in the American continent, as well as
Republic of Zimbabwe and South Africa, in Africa, are the countries where
its development is growing.
In the Iberian Peninsula, the areas where it is produced are distributed among
Asturias, Huelva, Cáceres, Barcelona and even organic raspberries in the
Duerna Valley in León, although the Spanish market also imports
from Chile and Central America.

The raspberry is one of the most expensive temperate climate fruits.

unit price in the fresh market and with high demand from the
agroindustry.
The global production of fresh raspberries averages 412 thousand
tons - and global consumption is concentrated in the northern hemisphere.
This outlook favors the sale of raspberries in counter-season with a
important price differential for fresh fruit exported from the
countries of the southern hemisphere.

90% of the world's raspberry production is frozen for export.

industrial, mainly for the production of concentrated juices.

I.8. Production and financial statistics

In 2019, the raspberry production obtained in the world was 822,493.
tons, with a harvested area of 127,578 hectares, so
The global average yield was 6.4 tons per hectare.

Production obtained
The production of raspberry worldwide is shown in the following.
table. All values are in tons.

Production Year
2010 522,004
2011 599,451
2012 569,352
2013 588,278
2014 628,672
2015 674,934
2016 823,429
2017 798,224
2018 850,422
2019 822,493

Harvested area
The global raspberry area is shown in the following table.
All values are in hectares.
Year
2010
2011 107,091
2012 102,507
2013
2014 93,317
2015 101,203
2016 114,840
2017 119,088
2018 126,114
2019 127,578

Average performance
The global raspberry yield is shown in the following
table. All values are in tons per hectare.
Year
2010 4.9
2011 5.6
2012 5.6
2013 6.3
2014 6.7
2015 6.7
2016 7.2
2017 6.7
2018 6.7
20196.4

I.9. Zoning
Deep, fertile soils with good drainage are recommended, as they are
a plant very sensitive to root asphyxia. In this sense it
they recommend sandy or loamy-sandy soils, soil pH
slightly acidic and with an electrical conductivity of less than 1.2 dS/m.

I.10. Edaphoclimatic requirements

Climate: The raspberry bush adapts to very varied climates, as it is quite
resistant to winter cold and high summer temperatures.
Asturias has the ideal climatic conditions for this crop.
allowing production for a long period of time, which can
to cover from spring to the end of autumn. Each species or variety
it requires a specific average duration of winter rest, which is known
like their cold needs. This number of accumulated hours during
winter dormancy, below a threshold temperature, is called
cold-hours (m/f). The threshold is generally set at 7 ºC. The conditions
optimal climates are short winters with constant low temperatures,
necessary to accumulate the chilling hours required by this species, which
they are between 600 and 1200 h/f for most varieties. Nowadays
There are some news from the group of the re-flourishing, with needs
very low in cold hours. On the other hand, the raspberry prefers summers
fresh, with high relative humidity and thermal fluctuations between the
day and night, which increases the quality of the fruit. In areas with summers
On very hot days, the plant thrives perfectly, but the fruit can be seen.
seriously impaired, losing organoleptic quality and occurring
a significant softening of it. Although it can tolerate
high maximum temperatures, optimal for achieving a good
production ranges between 15-22 ºC. Outside this range, some
varieties can vary productive behavior, in terms of
it can be modified to be rising or not rising.
Soil: It adapts to different types of soil. However, the most
suitable are the clearings and without the presence of stagnant waters, since it is
a species very demanding in oxygen at a radical level and, therefore, very
sensitive to asphyxia, which can occur within a few days of
continued encroachment. Its cultivation is not advisable in soils.
heavy, with clay percentages higher than 25-30%. It is also
It is very important that the organic matter content is high, above
of 2%; that the pH is between 6-7; that the limestone content
does not exceed 2% and that the levels in the soil of bicarbonates, chloride and
sodium should be low, below 150 ppm in all cases. It is a plant
relatively sensitive to soil salinity, as with values of
above 1.2 dS/m, measured in the saturation extract, there is a
decrease in production.

Pollination: The flowers of the raspberry, in the vast majority of the

varieties, are hermaphroditic and self-fertile to a greater or lesser extent, therefore
that plots can be cultivated with a single variety. However, as
in many other species, cross-pollination improves the harvests,
increasing the size of the fruit and, consequently, the final production.
pollination can occur through the wind (anemophilous pollination), since
the raspberry pollen is very light and abundant, but the most important
it is done by insects (entomophilous pollination), mainly by
the bees and bumblebees, for whom this flower is very attractive because of its
abundant pollen and for being highly honey-producing. It is recommended to place during the season

of flowering 4-6 hives per ha. Frosts of -3 ºC during the period of

pollen formation, which roughly coincides during budding
(March-April), their germination power can significantly decrease.
On the other hand, the closed flower button can withstand temperatures of
up to -1.5 ºC, and both the open flower and the freshly set fruit, up to -0.5
°C
 .

I.11. Cultivars
Non-remontant or Non-reflowering cultivars
They produce a single harvest each year, during the summer season, on the
branches grown the previous year; that is to say, one year the branches grow and at
next they bear fruit and dry up, behaving in this way like stems
biannual

Branches of non-flowering varieties in the year of growth

Non-reflowering varieties The two most functional systems for this
types of varieties are:
Backrest.
It consists of placing posts, usually made of treated wood or metal, at
along the planting line, at a distance of 6-7 m between each one,
about those that have 2-3 lines of wires spaced evenly,
holding the first one 50-70 cm off the ground and the third one at a height of 1.5-1.7 m.
The canes are leaned against these, tying them to one of the wires. It is
an inexpensive system to install, but not very functional for plantations
multiannual, as it generates an excessive density of vegetation due to
to intermix the production canes with the shoots in the same one
space, which hinders the tasks of collection and cultivation. It is used
more in the case of annual planting, where the already formed cane is planted in
nursery with its root system and is uprooted after the end of the harvest,
to replant again.

V-System or Fan.
It is the most used system. In this case, the wires are placed
forming two inclined planes in the shape of a 'V'. These planes can be
achieve in two ways: • with two parallel lines of inclined posts
forming the "V", which are placed in the ground at an angle of about 45º,
with vertical posts with two crossarms, forming a double T. The first
cross, with a width of 40-50 cm, is located about 70 cm from the ground;
The second is placed at the highest part of the posts, at a height of 1.7-1.8 m,
and with a maximum width of 0.80-1 m. In this way, the reeds of
production is tied at both sides forming two inclined planes in shape
of 'V' and leaving the center free for the emission of sprouts. Thus, the crop
it is better structured, sunlight exposure is facilitated, and cultivation practices are made easier
such as pruning, harvesting
Reblooming varieties
For this type of varieties, the 'V' system can also be used.
but the hedge is more functional and practical. Although nowadays, with the great
number of new varieties that are coming to market, with habits
very different types of growth, it is not advisable to recommend the same
tutoring system for all of them, but the most suitable one must be chosen.
appropriate for each type of variety.
Seto.
Posts, usually made of wood, are placed along the line of
planting spaced 6-8 m apart, to which wires are attached on both sides of the
post at two different heights from the ground, 70 cm and 150 cm. In this way, the
The rods are more or less tightened between the wires and it is not
it is necessary to tie them. In some cases, ropes are used instead of wire,
since when the crop is of a single harvest, the pruning system
consists of mechanically cutting all the reeds flush with the ground, for the
the strings are withdrawn to facilitate the work
I.12. Genetic improvement
I.13. Agronomic Management

I.13.1. Propagation

The raspberry plant is a species that can be easily multiplied, both sexually
asexual. Sexual reproduction, by seeds, is only done with
genetic improvement purposes for obtaining new varieties, already
that the plants that germinate from these seeds never have the
identical characters to those of the mother plant. To obtain plants of
nursery uses various methods of asexual reproduction. The most
it is simple through the obtaining of the shoots that sprout
directly from the radical system of adult plants, but does not provide
sufficient health guarantee to carry out commercial plantings. The
the most advisable system for the propagation of this species is the
rooted cutting, which achieves a high percentage of plants
and a great sanitary and vegetative quality. For this method it is
it is essential to use mother plants with health guarantee, which
they are usually obtained from in vitro propagation. The mother plants are
They must be grown individually in containers to avoid infections.
among themselves and to be able to eliminate those that present any health anomaly.
On the other hand, the renewal of these mother plants is essential.
every 2 or 3 years, since from that age the percentage of
rooted decreases considerably, while the risk increases
of diseases and virus contamination.
The control of parasites is also of vital importance, especially
the aphids that are one of the main transmission agents of
virus, as well as pollen, which is also another potential agent
transmitter, so it is essential not to let the plants bloom,
removing all branches that contain floral buttons. During the
in spring, the planting of the mother plants in containers is carried out,
In the following winter, roots can already be obtained for the
multiplication. To do this, the plant is taken out of the container and crumbled.
the root ball and the entire root system is cut below the crown of
the plant. Next, all the roots that have a
diameter ranging from 2-5 mm and are divided into sections of
about 5-7 cm in length.
These sprouts are replanted into tray cells or individual 'pots' of
5-7 cm in diameter. Once they reach a height of 10-15 cm,
they transplant to final soil, in spring-summer plantations, or they
they put in larger pots for winter plantations
next. The substrate to be used can be of many types: peat, fiber of
coconut, rock wool, pine bark, etc., but always mixed with a
material that facilitates drainage such as sand, perlite, etc., both for the
seedlings like for the mother plants.
I.13.2. Establishment of planting
The normal planting season is from winter to spring, but if you
they have optimal conditions it can be done at any time of the year
with blooming varieties. The distance between streets that facilitates the
mechanical work is 2 to 3 meters. The preferred structure for
developing this crop under cover in Mexico is the macro tunnel, since
allows to have a atmosphere semi-controlled

I.13.3. Cultural practices (irrigation, cleaning, tissue management)

Irrigation: It is essential to avoid water stress in the plant by providing the
water needed through irrigation to reach maximum potential
productive of the crop. It also serves as a vehicle to provide the
necessary fertilizers, what is known as fertigation. The largest
water needs correspond to the time of thickening of the
fruit, which in the case of non-reflowering varieties in the areas
humid areas of the Cantabrian cornice occur during the months of June and
July, a moment when there may still be enough reserve of
water in the soil. However, it should be kept in mind that in the
commercial type plantations is essential to have a
irrigation installation to ensure maximum productivity. Without
embargo, in the case of the reflowering, for the summer harvest, the
the thickening of the fruit takes place during the months of
August and September
period that corresponds to the maximum evapotranspiration and the least
precipitation, so it is necessary to irrigate to achieve maximum
production. Irrigation is entirely indispensable when the crop is
it is done in a greenhouse, regardless of the type of varieties
In order for its fruits to thrive, the plant will have to be
exposed daily to between eight and ten hours of direct sunlight. It is
this is exactly how raspberries improve their size,
flavor and juiciness. On the other hand, it is also important
plant raspberries in a sheltered place from strong winds.

WEED CONTROL.
Apart from land tillage as a physical method of elimination of
weeds, it is possible to perform chemical weeding through the
application of long-lasting herbicides such as simazine, atrazine, or
diuron, distributed on the surface or the casoron in granular form. In
the loose soils or on the streets where they are periodically carried out
mechanical canvas, it is advisable not to use long-lasting herbicides
persistence, as there is a risk of putting it in contact with the
roots of the raspberries. Therefore, it is recommended to use herbicides of
contact such as paraquat or diquat.

HURRY
Raspberry pruning is very simple and can be summarized in three steps.
simple operations:
1) Elimination of the branches what han fructified.
Clarification of the new vegetation, with the elimination of the regrowths
too weak the excessive
o in number.
3) Reduction of the regrowth intended to produce the new harvest.

The plant developed in a shrub form, after being suppressed from

the same base the shoots that have already borne fruit, 6-8 are chosen from
the most vigorous, eliminating the rest and trimming off the very long half
and the other half very short, to allow for staggered fruiting,
dealing with non-repeating varieties, by means of which
the vegetation will be able to balance with fruit production, achieving
a harvest since June until finals of August.

Regarding the biannual or two-season varieties, they will be pruned short.

between 60-70 cm, through which fruiting will be obtained
in autumn in the branches of the same year and another in summer of the following year.
Pruning should be done on non-repeating varieties starting from
November and in the rising ones in the middle of winter, and at a height of
a meter.

I.13.4. Fertilization and nutrition

Fertilization Fertilization begins in the spring following

the planting, regardless of having performed base fertilization
during soil preparation. It primarily provides
macronutrients like nitrogen (N), which have high requirements in
this species and it must be fractionated to improve its
utilization, especially in rainy areas where it can be washed
easily, in addition to phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium
(Ca), essential in fruit production. They are also necessary.
micronutrients such as boron (B) and zinc (Zn). The most suitable way of
applying fertilizers is always done through fertigation, although
subscriptions can also be made in a traditional way at the cover.
especially in outdoor crops and in humid areas
The main elements involved are described below.
in the fertilization of raspberry:
Nitrogen (N). This element has a notable influence on growth.
vegetative and in the vigor of the plant in general. It causes an abundant
shoot emission, a fundamental aspect in raspberry production,
stimulates flowering, increases fruit size, as well as
final production, and provides greater resistance to pests and
diseases. One of the symptoms of nitrogen deficiency is the
chlorosis or yellowing of mature leaves, as well as a
decrease in the growth of shoots and leaves. On the contrary, the
excess nitrogen input leads to an exaggerated development of the
buds and foliage, which takes on a very intense dark green color and
It can produce a greater set of fruits, but it drastically decreases.
its quality of being softer, which implies a post-harvest life very
deficient. It also increases sensitivity to pests and
diseases due to poor lignification of the canes. The dosage
the average for a crop in full production can be around
100-150 kg/ha. In the case of re-flowering varieties, it will be applied.
the highest dose, distributing it during the two production periods,
when the two harvests are desired
Phosphorus (P). It is of vital importance for the proper development of the system.
radical and the lignification of the canes contributes to increasing the number
from flower buds and the good setting of the fruit. It also favors the
accumulation of reserves in the plant for the next campaign. The
excess can induce zinc deficiency, due to its blockage. The
symptoms of deficiency of this element translate into a lower
growth rate, with lower productions and fruit quality. The
The average dose of an adult plantation can be around 80-100.
kg/ha of P2O5. The highest needs of the crop range from
start of vegetative development until fruit setting, as well as
after the harvest.
Potassium (K). Increases the plant's resistance to stress conditions.
due to lack of water and excessive winter cold from low temperatures, at
just as it improves the vigor and quality of the canes. It has an impact in a way
notable about the quality of the fruits, increasing their firmness, flavor,
aroma and productive performance. Excess potassium can
to cause deficiencies of calcium and magnesium, and its deficiency contributes
to decrease the quantity and quality of the fruits, and the leaves acquire
a light green color, with marginal necrosis. A medium dose can
to be around 150-200 kg/ha of K2 O5. It is applied from the beginning of the
vegetation until the harvest is over, but contributing the majority
since the setting of the fruit.

Calcium (Ca). Improves the quality of the canes by influencing the good
lignification, in the setting and quality of the fruit, increasing its firmness
and prolonging its post-harvest life. It also increases resistance
against pests and diseases. A quite common technique for
increasing the hardness and preservation of the fruit is to provide sprays
during the harvest, every 6–8 days, with calcium-based products or
calcium and boron. An excess of calcium in the soil can cause deficiencies.
of the macro elements phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium, as well as of
some microelements like boron, zinc, and manganese (Mn). Its
deficiency causes the death of growth tips in roots and
leaves, weakened stems and above all, the decrease in firmness of the
fruits. The approximate average dose in full production is 30-40
kg/ha. The time of highest demand for the crop is from flowering to
harvest end, and the most common way to provide it is as nitrate
calcium
Magnesium (Mg). Magnesium increases the vigor of shoots and canes and
contributes to greater photosynthetic activity of the leaf mass
increasing the intensity of the green color in the leaves, which translates to
in greater production. It also favors the accumulation of reserves.
for the following campaign. Excess can induce calcium deficiency
and potassium. It can also induce too much vigor by stimulating a
greater nitrogen absorption. Magnesium deficiencies the
Raspberry 46 are uncommon, and are generally associated with soils.
acidic, or sandy with high potassium content
Boron (B). Boron plays a very important role during the
flowering, the setting and the size of this type of berries (polydrupe).
Improves the accumulation of reserves and contributes to better sprouting.
Excess causes toxicity in the leaves, which may diminish the
production and its deficiency, low setting level and deformation of the
fruits.
Zinc (Zn). Improves rooting of young plants, increases the
production of meristems and promotes fruit setting. The excess,
which occurs on rare occasions, can induce phosphorus deficiency.
Plants with zinc deficiency show an interveinal chlorosis.
the leaves. In soils with abundant organic matter, they are not usually
frequent deficiencies of these or other trace elements.
Anyway, when complex fertilizers are used that contain
added micro elements, needs are usually covered
these.

Nutrition: the raspberry is a fragrant and juicy berry.

the proportions of their nutrients can vary according to the different
varieties and the degree of ripeness of the fruit. In general, the main
Element is water (85-90%). Approximately, they contain about 5.0% of
carbohydrates, such as fructose and glucose, which constitute the
major component of the soluble fraction. Citric acid (1.72%)
it is the second component of this fraction. For the acceptance of the fruit
for the consumer, a balanced flavor between sour and
sugar. The climate also affects the flavor; in this way, the fruits
Those that ripen in dry and mild summers are sweeter and less
acids than those that ripen in humid climate and conditions
extreme heat reduces its aroma. They are an excellent source of
vitamin C and rich in vitamins A, E, and K, as well as folic acid and
various minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, manganese
or iron. Raspberry is among the low-sodium foods.
since 100 g of this food contains only 1.0 mg. They provide a
considerable percentage of soluble fiber (6.5%), for example, pectins:
in red raspberries, approximately 0.1-1.0% of the fraction
soluble is formed by this polymer. And, although from a point of
Strictly speaking, fiber cannot be considered a nutrient as it is not assimilated.
in the body, it has many health benefits: it is attributed to a
highlighted protective effect of the organism, due to a mechanism of
seizure of potentially harmful substances (cholesterol, acids
bile etc.), which are eliminated along with the feces. These fruits also
are highly valued for their content in polyphenols. These compounds
they are a set of secondary metabolites present in most
of vegetables. Due to their chemical structure, polyphenols are able
to stop reactions caused by free radicals. Raspberries
are especially rich in anthocyanins and ellagic acid. The
Anthocyanins are responsible for their characteristic colors and have
proven to have significant antioxidant and anticancer properties.
Ellagic acid is another type of polyphenol that intervenes in blocking
the multiplication processes of cancer cells. Also
they provide other phytochemicals, such as beta-carotene (or pro vitamin A), acid
ferulic and coumaric acid. Recent studies suggest that consumption
Foods rich in p-coumaric acid may promote survival.
in the intestine of beneficial microorganisms for our health.
I.13.5. Integrated pest and disease management
For the moment, in the outdoor Asturian plantations, they have not
serious phytosanitary problems have been detected, although they can be detected
Botrytis on fruit in springs or summers with abundant rains
during the harvest. In the case of crop under plastic, the surveillance in
this sense must be greater, since the incidence of pests, such as
the red spider and the white fly, it is much more likely. Possibly,
one of the most dangerous pests that can affect the raspberry bush,
and all small fruits in general, it is the Drosophila suzukii, a
newly appeared vinegar fly in Europe, which will have to be
to keep in mind in the future, as in Spain they have also
damage detected on fruits in numerous crops, including the
raspberry. Below are described some of the most
important pests and diseases of this crop.
Pests
 Mites.- Both the yellow spider (Tetranychus urticae) and the spider
red (Panonicus ulmi) causes severe damage to the plant,
fundamentally in sheltered crops. The symptoms are very
characteristics when yellowing occurs in the leaves that
they cause a partial or total defoliation of the plant, which means that it
compromises the current harvest and even the next one by inhibiting the
flower bud formation.

Control methods. As a preventive measure, it is recommended to burn the

pruning wood and keeping the plot clean of weeds for
avoid its refuge. In case the use of products is necessary
chemicals, the specific ones for mites should be used, taking into account
It states that the formulation of the product must be directed towards the different
forms of the pest, adults, eggs and/or larvae, and that in some
On occasions it will be necessary to use mixtures of different products. Both
in organic farming, as in conventional, the use of enemies
natural predators like Phytoseiulus spp., which are very voracious predators,
it provides good results, but requires monitoring
cultivation constant for making releases at the beginning of the infestation
of the crop, since once the pest is widely spread this
the system is unable to control it.

Plants in a state of advanced infestation by red spider

White fly.- It is a small fly that feeds on sap.

This pest, which is of little importance in outdoor raspberry cultivation
free, it can indeed cause serious problems in the greenhouse. Although there are
various species that can cause damage to crops in our region
mainly there are two that are the most abundant, Bemisia tabacii and Trialeurodes
vaporariorum. The symptoms of the damage are similar to those of the spider,
the leaves begin to yellow due to the bites of the adults for
sucking the sap, until they dry up and fall. This brings about another problem
added that adults excrete a molasses on the surface of the
leaves, where a fungus called Negrilla (Cladosporium sp.) settles and forms
a black layer, which makes photosynthesis difficult and weakens the plant;
Additionally, the fruits can also become stained.
Control methods. It is advisable to remove the weeds from the crop that
they can serve as refuge. Treatments can be carried out with products
authorized chemicals when the first individuals are observed, wetting
well the underside of the leaves where they are located. When the pest is very
extended it is very difficult to control, even with phytosanitary products, due to that with
good temperatures flies can have a generation every
20 days. One of the most effective methods is biological control, based on
predators or parasitoids, such as Encarsia formosa, that lays the egg
inside the whitefly larva and feeds on it before emerging into
exterior to continue parasitizing larvae. As has already been mentioned, this
The system requires greater monitoring of the crop and to carry out releases very early on.
from the detection of the pest.

Raspberry weevil (Anthonomus rubi).- It is an insect that lays

his eggs inside the flower in a hole that he makes with his length
pico. When the larvae hatch, they feed on the organs.
reproductive parts of the flower, causing a very characteristic drying out
and subsequent fall, very similar to the damage caused by the Antonomo
from the apple tree.

Control methods. As a way to prevent your attack, in case of

having detected it the previous year, it is important to burn the pruning wood
and keep the plot free of weeds that serve as a refuge for the
plague during winter. In case pest control is necessary
chemical products, treatments with insecticides will be carried out
specific in pre-flowering.
Raspberry bug (Byturus tomentosus).- It is a beetle that
causes damage both from larva and adult. The worm burrows galleries.
in the fruits and the adults sting the flowers, which can lead to abortion, or
as a lesser evil, it causes deformities in the fruits.
Control method. Similar to those used for the Antonomo.
Cecidomia (Thomasiniana theobaldi).- It is a small fly
that lays its eggs in the crevices or holes it finds in the
stems near the ground. From April to June, it can have several
generations. The wounds caused by the larvae when feeding on
Beneath the epidermis of the canes of the year are an entryway.
of fungi, potentially reaching to dry them out. Although it is a serious pest in the
raspberry, has not yet been detected in our region.
Control methods. The application of nitrogen must be controlled for
avoid excessive vigorous growth of the reeds that can
generate the formation of cracks or indentations where the placement of
eggs. In the case that chemical control is necessary, it must be carried out.
spraying with an authorized insecticide at the base of the canes in
the period from April to June.
Drosophila (Drosophila suzuki).- It is a vinegar fly native to
Asia, detected in Europe (Spain and Italy) in 2008 and, that
recently detected in Asturias. It is a small insect
size, a few millimeters, and that cannot fly long distances,
so its dispersion depends more on human intervention than on
its own possibilities. It causes damage to many crops, including
the raspberry, blackberry, strawberry, blueberry, cherry, etc. Causes damage with
its saw-shaped ovipositor, with which it makes a cut in
the fruits, primarily in their ripening, and lays the eggs to
that the larvae, when they hatch inside the fruits, will
feed on these. Subsequently, the adult makes a hole to exit.
on the outside where the juices of the fruit exude, causing its
deterioration.
Control methods. It is very important to adopt some measures of
prevention, such as collecting the fruit at its optimal time.
harvest, and under no circumstances leave overripe fruit in the
plants, in the soil, etc. Another method of prevention and control that provides
good results are from massive trapping with natural attractants, such as
vinegar or other commercially available preparations already on the market.

In the case that the infestation is significant, it may be possible to use

authorized chemical products for cultivation.
Vinegar-based traps for mass capture.

Drosophila suzuki flies, male (upper) with the characteristics

spots on the wings, and female (lower), where the apparatus is noticeable
ovipositor. (Photo: Plant Health Laboratory of the Principality of
Asturias.

Aphids.- Fundamentally, there are two species that attack the

raspberry, the green aphid (Aphidula idaei) and the yellow-green
(Amphorophora rubi), which is larger. They are insects.
suckers that, although they cause significant weakening to the
plants due to the sap extraction they carry out, the greatest damage is
they probably produce indirectly, since they are large
virus transmitters, a pathology to which the raspberry is very sensitive.
Control methods. In the case of using chemical products and,
function of the intensity of the attack, treatments should be limited to
the possible sources of infection in order to avoid harming the
beneficial auxiliary fauna, addressing only the entire plot in case
necessary. In organic agriculture, they can be controlled through
biological struggle with predators and parasitoids, such as the known ones
ladybugs that feed on aphids, or a wasp that
parasite (Aphidus colemani) when laying eggs inside the aphid to
that the larvae feed on it when they hatch.
Nematodes.- They are parasites that live in the soil and cause damage to
the plants with the stings they make in the roots, producing the
gall formation and promoting virus transmission.
Control methods. In case of having evidence of these in the soil,
It should be disinfected before planting with nematicidal products.
authorized. It is also very important that the plants have the
corresponding health certificate to ensure that not
they come contaminated from the nursery.

Diseases
Botrytis or Gray Mold (Bitryotinia fukeliana).
This fungus can cause damage to both the branches and the fruits.
On the branches it causes a grayish coloration and cracking,
fundamentally at the ends of these and on the clusters
floral. The infected fruits show a grayish mold very
characteristic and, on many occasions, when maturing they remain
mummified on the plant. The infection occurs at temperatures
between 18-22 ºC and high relative humidity, and from flowering until the
end of the harvest, being more frequent in rainy springs and
warm.
Control methods. In the case of having suffered strong attacks in the
It is advisable to carry out copper-based treatments during the previous harvest.
in autumn and winter, with the falling of the leaves, besides carrying out
preventive treatments with specific fungicides from before the
start of flowering until the petals fall. It is also
it's important to cut and burn the affected shoots during the cultivation, thus
how to properly manage both irrigation water and the
nitrogenous fertilization, since its excess promotes infections.

Damage caused by Botrytis on fruits.

Roya (Pucciniastrum americanum).- Mainly affects leaves and
fruits. It is very easy to identify by its characteristic yellow color.
orange that the spores have. These can winter in tissues
contaminated, hence the importance of burning the pruning residues that
have been infected. The effects are mostly visible in full
summer, with high temperatures. Symptoms are detected on the underside
from the oldest leaves closest to the ground and on the fruits, being
about these where the greatest damages occur since they are covered
the yellow-orange pustules becoming useless for the
consumption.
Control methods. At the appearance of the first symptoms, one can
dealing with sulfur and copper-based products. As measures
preventive measures, if the attack is at the basal part of the plants, they can be
defoliate and burn the leaves, as well as the pruning residues.

Rust attack on raspberry fruit, where it is noticeable the

yellow sporulations on fruits, and others already mummified.
Drought or burning of the stems (Didymella applanata).
It causes necrosis in the tissues of the basal part of the branches, which
they acquire a purplish color. It usually appears in late spring or at
the beginning of summer. Like most diseases of this type,
attacks are favored in heavy soils, with poor
drainage and an excessive density of branches.

Control methods. Uproot and burn diseased plants to prevent

the spread of the disease and use plant material with guarantee
Sanitary. As a precaution, if the disease has been detected in the year
previously, it is advisable to treat with fungicides for the sprouting and for the fall of
the sheet.
Fusariosis (Fusarium spp.). - The attack originates in the basal part of the
cane, potentially extending throughout the branch. The lesions are of
rough appearance, of a blackish color and occasionally pinkish.
 The fundamental cause of the infection is excess moisture in the
soil. Both pests and the different tools or implements
used for cultivation, are the main transmitters of the
disease, since the entry point of the fungus is the wounds that are
they provoke on the different parts of the plant.
Control methods. They are based on preventive measures of the type of
previously mentioned, as there are no chemical products for
his/her healing.

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca macularis) - It can cause attacks on shoots.

leaves and fruits. It is easily detected by presenting spots
white powdery substances, similar to flour, that constitute the
mycelium of the fungus. Attacks by this fungus are rare in
raspberry
Control methods. Since attacks usually occur in branches
isolated, it is usually sufficient to cut and burn the affected shoots.
If the attack were very widespread, it can be treated with sulfur.
also authorized in organic farming, or with fungicides
specific for powdery mildew.

Phytophthora (Phytophthora spp.). - It can cause serious problems in

this crop due to the high sensitivity it presents to this pathogen,
especially when it is installed in soils that are not very suitable for it, such as those of
heavy structure, poorly drained and lacking oxygen in the system
radical, fundamental conditions for the proliferation of this fungus.
Causes drying of all or part of the branches, and reduction of
growth of the sprouts, completely drying out the root system.
Control methods. As a prevention, it is extremely important the
selection of the soil and its careful preparation, ensuring a good
drainage capacity and cleaning of crop root residues
previous. When their presence is detected in the crop it is necessary
deal with authorized chemical products.

I.13.6. Harvest
It is one of the most demanding phases of cultivation, both because it involves a fruit
very delicate and perishable, as it has to be done with a high
frequency. In the vast majority of cases, it is collected daily and, in
occasions, even two times a day on the same plant.
The ripening of the fruits is staggered and can last from 4-5 weeks.
during the summer harvest period (June-July), even up to 10-12 weeks
in late summer-autumn harvest with some varieties of type
blooming.
Both the start and the frequency of the collection are conditioned by
the fate of the fruit. When it is harvested for the fresh market, the
the ideal moment for harvesting is when the fruit acquires color
orange, just before its full physiological maturity. In this state,
the fruit has a greater hardness and withstands handling and transportation better,
achieving a longer life in the commercial circuit.
The raspberry, despite being considered a non-climacteric fruit, that
once separated from the plant, it does have this ability acquiring
the color red more or less intense, depending on varieties, and in many cases to
the few hours of its collection.
To maximize post-harvest life and fruit quality, it is very
It's important to start your cooling as soon as possible, without waiting more than
3-4 hours from collection to entry into the chamber.
When the fate of the fruit is the processing industry, it doesn't have as much
the importance of the optimal ripening state, which is why it is often concentrated
production and reduce the number of harvesting passes to 1-2 per
week, to increase the performance of this operation and reduce the
costs, since the price in this case is much lower than that of
fresh market.
The collection yields also vary depending on the destination of the
fruit. When it is for fresh, it can be around 3-4 kg/hour/person; and in
the collection case for industry, at about 10-12 kg/hour/person.
When the product is intended for industry, mechanization of the
collection operation, which is carried out with self-propelled machines that go
riding the lines, with a performance that can exceed 1,000
kg/hour. There are also intermediate solutions, always in the case of fruit.
intended for the industry, such as pneumatic or electric vibrators, which
managed by teams of three or four people, they can obtain
very satisfactory yields.
Fruits at the optimal moment for harvesting for the fresh market
(left), and excessively ripe fruits for fresh harvest (right).
I.13.7. Post-harvest management
Water loss.
Berry fruits are very susceptible to water loss.
causing dehydration, wrinkling, loss of shine and also
loss of some bioactive compounds (those that are soluble
in water like vitamin C). To minimize water loss, it is
It is important to cool the fruit as quickly as possible, keep it in the
optimal temperature and relative humidity. The optimal relative humidity
for all berry fruits is 90-95%. The use of packaging
suitable helps to maintain a high relative humidity. The maximum
allowed water loss quantity in raspberry and blackberry before
the rate of becoming non-marketable is 6%.
Cold damage in red blueberries.
Berry fruits are not usually sensitive to cold, but with
exception to the cranberries that may present an appearance
dull, a gummy texture, and increased susceptibility to
rotting as a response to very low temperatures.
Disorders due to extreme concentrations of gases.
Oxygen concentrations lower than 2% and/or greater than 25% of
carbon dioxide can cause the development of a discoloration
curtain and unpleasant flavors depending on the variety, the duration of
the exposure and the temperature.
Diseases.
Rotting is the most important cause of losses in
post-harvest of berry fruits. In red cranberries
harvested in water, greater rotting occurs and more
physiological degradation that in those harvested by hand,
especially if the fruit is kept in water for more than 12 to 24
hours. The most important diseases of berry fruits
include:

Botrytis rot (gray rot):

 It is the most important pathogen that attacks berry fruits.
caused by Botrytis cinerea. It is a very common pathogen in all the
berry fruits, where infection commonly occurs in the field
and remains in a latent form. This fungus can grow at temperature
from 0 °C, albeit very slowly.
Rot caused by Rhizopus.
Caused by the fungus Rhizopus stolonifer, the spores of this fungus
they are generally present in the air, especially in the
storage rooms and propagate easily. The fungus does not
will grow at temperatures below 5°C, so the method most
important for its control is the management of temperature.
Methods for Controlling Rot. The most important methods are
control of rot in berry fruits includes:
Avoid physical damage to the fruit
Rapid cooling Maintenance of temperature and humidity
most optimal relatives
Use highs concentrations of dioxide of carbon

Cold Chain
Pre-cooling
Rapid cooling (quick removal of
field heat) of berry fruits. Immediately after the
the harvested fruit should be kept in the shade and never in the sun
The pre-cooling process must be carried out as soon as possible.
as soon as possible, within 1 to 2 hours after harvesting. For example,
a 3-hour pre-cooling delay after the harvest of the
Strawberry can decrease the quality and shelf life of the fruit by up to 40%.
Strawberries kept at 10 °C will have only 1/3 of their shelf life.
compared to strawberries kept at 0°C. A one-hour delay in
raspberry cooling can mean a loss of a day of
life of the fruit. The most efficient pre-cooling technique for the
Berry fruits are the forced air. In case of the lack of the technique of
forced air, some arrangements must be made in a cold room
to cool the fruit quickly, although this technique is like ten
times slower than forced air. Some of these arrangements include:
increase the circulation of cold air in the room, separate the pallets and
the packaging in such a way that allows for better circulation of
cold air through the boxes.
 Optimal Temperature and Relative Humidity

The optimal temperatures are 0 °C for strawberry, blackberry,

raspberry and blueberry, and 3°C for cranberry. The humidity
the optimal relative humidity for all berry fruits is 90-95 %. The
the shelf life under these optimal conditions is 2-5 days for blackberry and
raspberry
4 months for cranberry. The maximum freezing temperature
the strawberry and blackberry is -0.8 °C, -1.1 °C for raspberry and -1.3 °C
of the blueberry. Fruits with high soluble solids content will have
lower freezing temperature.
Effects and Use of Modified Atmospheres (MA) and Controlled Atmospheres (CA)

The use of modified atmosphere in packaging or on the pallet and

during transport or maintenance, with 15 to 20% carbon dioxide
of carbon, and 5 to 10% of oxygen is very advantageous for the fruits of
berries, as it reduces the growth of rots, especially
Botrytis cinerea (gray mold) reduces respiration and the
softening of the fruit, maintaining quality and extending shelf life
post-harvest. When modified atmospheres are used, they must be
use appropriate containers and pallet covers to hold the
gas concentration. The use of modified atmospheres is
it would complement the proper use of the cold chain and it is not a
substitute. It is very important to ensure that the concentrations of
Oxygen should not be less than 2% and carbon dioxide should not be
more than 30%. These extreme levels of gases cause problems in the
fruit, including softening, sensitivity to diseases, and flavors
unpleasant.

I.13.8. Marketing
As happens with almost any agricultural production, marketing is
one of the most complex aspects.
The consumption of raspberry, like that of other small fruits, is increasing.
every year significantly but, due to its high market price, it is
aimed at a segment of the population with a medium-high standard of living, which
it reduces the potential number of consumers. Due to this, the units
for sale in the fresh market are always small in size. The
the most common containers are trays of different formats and materials, with
 weights that vary according to markets and time of the season: 125, 150, 200
or 250 g. The trays, in turn, are placed in packaging, usually of
cardboard or other non-reusable materials, with a net weight of 1-2 kg. For the
At the moment, its bulk commercialization is very rare for the
fresh market.
The main marketing channels for fresh fruit are the
large and medium surfaces, the network of central markets, the
restoration and select fruit shops. Most of the major chains of
supermarkets are supplied by producer organizations or
specialized companies in the marketing of berries, that
They are supplied for most of the year with a wide variety of
these, such as blueberries, blackberries, currants, strawberries, etc.. The rest of the chain
distribution is fundamentally nourished by the network of markets
central.
The distribution through short marketing circuits in markets
proximity can be a viable alternative in the case of small
productions.
When it comes to fruit intended for the processing industry, the
sales units are higher. In most cases, they are used
plastic or cardboard boxes with weights not exceeding 5 kg, so that
do not crush the fruit before freezing. In the case of fruit that is already frozen
they are often presented in plastic bags and/or boxes
cardboard, with variable weight according to the customer, which as already mentioned, vary
between 5-20 kg.

Production costs, revenue projection, and profitability.

The productive performance of the raspberry fundamentally depends on the
variety, of the sanitary status of the plant, of the edaphic conditions-
climatic and of course, the cultivation techniques used. They can be
obtain average yields of 12-15 t/ha, exceeding 20 t/ha
with some of the new varieties available today, having
the two harvests, autumn and spring. As the ripening of the
fruits, the production extends over time, potentially lasting from 4
weeks to more than 8, depending on varieties. Of all species of fruit trees,
the raspberry is one of the earliest to enter production, as
in the case of reblooming varieties, they can produce in the same year of
planting, achieving full production in the 2nd year. In the case of
 non-reflowering varieties, production begins in the 2nd year of planting,
reaching full production in the 3rd year.

In good growing conditions, production can be maintained for

some

8-10 years.

The raspberry is a berry that is mainly marketed in domes.

made of plastic with different weights. However, its wholesale price may
to have very high volatility. Guatemala is responsible for
around 45% of the total annual production and in 2021 presented prices
between Q32.00 and Q60.10 /Kg.

Exportation is another option for the producer with around the

presented prices ranging from Q56.90 to Q73.20. The rest of the production is
divided among other 7 products that are mainly dedicated to trade
national, unlike the large producers that have strong ties
with the international marketing of this highly valued product

II. CONCLUSIONS
One of the berries with the highest demand in the global market is the raspberry.
(Rubus idaeus L.); a crop whose fruit is characterized by its excellent
nutraceutical characteristics.

In the last 5 years, their production has increased by approximately 80 thousand.

tonnes worldwide (FAO, 2014).

This crop, due to its rapid entry into production (one year for producers of
autumn and two of summer), allows the fruit grower to assess its economic potential and
decide on its exploitation, without incurring a large initial investment.
 III. RECOMMENDATIONS

Try to damage the fruit as little as possible, without squeezing or hitting.

Harvest individually fruit by fruit and transfer immediately to the cup.

Organize collection by sectors and by variety. Avoid mixing fruit to

decrease the heterogeneity of the box.

Hygiene in fruit handling. Cleanliness in the hands of the harvesters: nails

short. Cleaning of harvesting materials, such as trays and cups.

IV. (IICA standard)

Agrios George N. 1996. Plant Pathology. Ed. LIMUSA. Mexico City.

Ellis, Michael A. 1991. Compendium of raspberry and blackberry diseases and insects. The
American Phytopathological Society. USA.

Muratalla L. A. 1993. The cultivation of blackberry and raspberry. Notes from the fruit growing center.
Graduate School. Montecillos, Mexico.

López Baltazar J. 1990. In vitro propagation of 4 raspberry cultivars (Rubus spp.).

5. ANNEXES