NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF JULIACA

VICE PRESIDENCE OF RESEARCH

FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS ENGINEERING

PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING IN FOOD INDUSTRIES

THEME Laboratory practice: Water analysis

COURSE : CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

TEACHER : Tania Jaqueline Choque Rivera

PRESENTED BY: MAMANI CHOQUE YULI PILAR

AUCCALLPA PAUCAR ADRIANA FIORELA

SEMESTER : X

ACADEMIC SEMESTER : 2023-II

JULIACA - PERU
2023
Table of contents
THEME : Laboratory practice: Water analysisa ................................. 1

I. INTRODUCTION. 4

II. OBJECTIVES. 4

2.1. Objective general. 4

2.2. Objectives specific. 4

III. DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENT SITUATION. 5

IV. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKO ................................................................................................. 6

4.1. Framework legal and institutional. 6

4.2. Water ......................................................................................................................... 7

Quality of water. 7

4.4. Standards international standards for water quality for human consumption
established by the World Health Organization. 8

4.5. Parameters of monitoring. 9

a. Parameters Physical Chemists. 9

4.6. Pollution of water. 10

4.7. Pollution for wastewater. 11

4.8. Eutrophication .......................................................................................................... 11

4.9. Conductivity electrica .......................................................................................... 12

Turbidity. 12

V. METHODOLOGY. 12

Materials and Teams .............................................................................................. 12

Samples. 12

Materials ...................................................................................................................... 13

Clothing. 13

5.2. Procedure. 13
VI. DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORK. 14

VII. CONCLUSIONS. 16

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS. 17

IX. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE. 18

X. ANNEXES. 20

XI. QUESTIONNAIRE. 22
 I. INTRODUCTION

Water analysis is essential to assess and understand its quality, being

it is essential to measure various physical parameters in situ due to the changing nature and
the inherent instability of the waters. This process, carried out with equipment
multiparameter, allows obtaining key data such as pH, temperature, conductivity,
dissolved oxygen and total dissolved solids. Field measurement eliminates the need
for special storage or preservation of samples, as the variability of
these waters require a direct approach. Moreover, the uniqueness of the water is highlighted.
as an anomalous liquid, composed of 18 possible combinations of three isotopes of
hydrogen and three of oxygen. Despite its apparent molecular simplicity (H2O), the
water has unique properties, such as its high specific heat, which facilitates the
thermal regulation on Earth. Its unusual density, being greater in liquid state
what a solid, allows ice to float and acts as an insulator, preventing freezing
total water masses and preserving aquatic life. This phenomenon, along with the
hydrogen bond links influence its chemical behavior and reinforce
the need for in situ analysis to properly understand and manage the
water resources.

II. OBJECTIVES
2.1. General objective
Evaluate and understand comprehensively the effectiveness of the multiparameter in the analysis
of water, through the execution of precise measurements of temperature, pH, oxygen
dissolved and electrical conductivity.

2.2. Specific Objectives

Know the operation of the multiparameter and perform measurements with it
multiparameter, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductivity.
Compare the results obtained with the current regulations.
III. DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENT SITUATION

The current situation in river water sampling has revealed a worrying picture.
in the river in question. Water quality is compromised, showing levels
significant pollution. This will be reflected when analyzing the water in the
multiparameter. The presence of floating household waste and waste in the
riverbanks suggest a lack of proper waste management, contributing to
deterioration of the aquatic environment. In addition, the activity of washing clothes in the

proximities of the river add polluting elements, such as detergents, that can
affect the chemical composition of the water. The presence of fish in this environment
raises concerns about the health of aquatic fauna, which is exposed to
suboptimal conditions. Together, this description underscores the urgency of addressing
the problems of pollution and promote sustainable practices to preserve the
water quality in this river ecosystem.

Image No. 1: River water sample

Currently, a rigorous water sampling process was carried out from the tap.
local (EPIIA) with the purpose of conducting a comprehensive multiparametric analysis.
This comprehensive approach seeks to provide a detailed understanding of quality.
water in the university's pipe, informing about its suitability for various uses
and allowing the implementation of appropriate environmental management measures.

Image No. 2. Tap water sample (EPIIA)

 Currently, a well water sampling process took place (front of
the UNAJ-CAMPUS CAPILLA), as we know in the region well water is affected
by different pollutants and heavy metals such as arsenic, that's why the changes
in the quality of water. In the face of the growing concern over the presence of
contaminants, For this purpose, it is intended to analyze in the multiparameter equipment. This

analysis covers key factors such as the concentration of heavy metals, levels of
nitrates, pH, and the presence of indicator microorganisms of fecal contamination.

Image No. 3. Well water sample.

IV. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

[Link] and institutional framework

The following are the policy guidelines at the national, regional, and local levels.
and relevant sectors to carry out field activities (Organization
Pan American Health Organization, 2012:

Political Constitution of Peru (1993).

General Environment Law - Law No. 28611
Article I.- Of the fundamental right and duty
Article V.- On the principle of sustainability
Article IX.- On the principle of environmental responsibility
Article X.- On the principle of equity
Water Resources Law - Law No. 29338
Article 83 It is prohibited to discharge polluting substances and waste.
of any kind in the water.
 General Health Law - Law No. 26842
Article 103: The protection of the environment is the responsibility of the State.

and of natural and legal persons

Article 104: no natural or legal person is allowed to make
discharges of waste or contaminating substances into water, air or
the ground.
Article 105º the competent Health Authority, the mission to issue
the necessary measures to minimize and control the risks for the
health of individuals.
Regulation on Water Quality for Human Consumption - Decree
Supreme No. 031-2010-S.A.

[Link]
It is a renewable natural resource, largely deteriorated by pollution.
anthropogenic and environmental degradation is affected by inadequate use and
conservation provided by the population. This resource can be scarce in one part of the
year and in certain geographic areas; but it can also be excessive and destructive in
others (J. Sánchez, 2019).

[Link] quality
The characteristics that determine water quality refer to its aspects
physical, chemical, and microbiological. According to these characteristics, the quality
a body of water can be suitable for a specific use and an inadequate use. The
World Health Organization (2006) defines water quality: 'set of
physical-chemical or microbiological variable characteristics, as well as their values
of acceptance or rejection. The physicochemical quality of the water is based on the
determination of specific chemical substances that can affect health after
short or long periods of exposure. The evaluation of water quality is a
multi-faceted approach regarding natural quality" (Ministry of
Environment, 2013).
[Link] standards for the quality of water for human consumption
established by the World Health Organization.
Since 1958, the World Health Organization (WHO) has issued on a
regulate the 'International Drinking Water Standards', which were subsequently
designated as the 'Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality'. These guidelines
International organizations aim primarily to raise quality standards of
drinking water and safeguarding human health, serving as a fundamental reference
for the formulation of regulations on drinking water quality in nations of
everyone and establish the appropriate standards for drinking water, WHO
you must conduct an investigation and subsequent analysis that allows you to verify whether those
standards fulfill their main mission of protecting public health. (Truque, 2003)

All countries that adopt national regulations of this type use the
WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality as the main reference
comparative. These guides, published approximately every 12 years, compile the
latest global information on the topic, serving as the framework of
updated reference for the evaluation and regulation of water quality
potable (Pan American Health Organization, 2012).

Table No. 1 permissible parameters for water according to WHO

[Link] parameters
The parameters detailed concisely below are the most important.
common:

a. Physical Chemical Parameters

Hydrogen potential (pH):
It is the logarithm to base 10 of the molar activity of hydrogen ions in
a solution, being an indicator that shows the level of acidity or alkalinity of
water (Garcia, 2011)
Temperature (Tº):
Temperature, as a thermodynamic indicator of the state of a system, defines the
heat and the transfer of energy within it. The temperature of the water plays
a crucial role in the concentration of oxygen present in it, as an increase
temperature accelerates both the photosynthetic process and decomposition of the
organic matter (Belendez, 2017).
Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
It is the amount of oxygen present in the water in a dissolved form, fundamental for
support the life of aquatic organisms. The concentration of dissolved oxygen
serves as a crucial indicator of water quality, as its decrease may
indicate the presence of pollutants. Most of this oxygen comes from the
atmosphere, dissolved in water, and the photosynthesis performed by aquatic plants
also contributes to its presence. Other factors, such as the presence of algae in areas
 illuminated by the sun, they generate higher levels of dissolved oxygen due to the
photosynthetic process. In addition, the turbulence of the water, driven by currents
rapidly, can increase dissolved oxygen levels by trapping air underwater in
movement, allowing its dissolution in water (Complutense University of
Madrid, 2001.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):
Express the measure in milligrams of dissolved oxygen that the bacteria use to
decompose the organic matter contained in a liter of water, serving as
quantitative indicator of aquatic pollution caused by matter
organic (Oikawa, Tsuda, Okamura, & Urabe, 1984).
Total Suspended Solids (TSS):
Total dissolved solids (TDS) include inorganic salts, predominantly
composed of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, along with bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulfates. In addition, they include minimal amounts of organic matter that are found
in solution in water (IDEAM, 2007).
Free chlorine:
Chlorine, a highly reactive gas and a naturally occurring element, is used
in water and wastewater treatment plants with the purpose of reducing the
levels of microorganisms that could potentially spread diseases among
humans, through the disinfection process. The effects of chlorine on the
human health is conditioned by the amount of chlorine present, as well as by the
duration and frequency of exposure. The impact on health also varies
according to the person's health condition and the environmental conditions at the time
from the exhibition (O. F. Sánchez, 2009).

4.6. Water Pollution

Water pollution consists of the alteration and deterioration of water until it becomes
useless, that is to say, until it becomes toxic for the consumption of terrestrial species
it is uninhabitable for aquatic species. It is also known as pollution.
hydric.
 Generally, water pollution is a result of human activity.
although it can also respond to natural phenomena (Escobar, 2002).

4.7. Pollution from wastewater

It is estimated that 80% of the total municipal and industrial wastewater is

directly discharged into water bodies of the environment; consequently, it degrades.
the overall quality of water generating impacts on ecosystems and health
human (Méndez & Marchán, 2008).

Eutrophication

In general, eutrophication refers to the increase of nutrients that

they produce an increase in biomass and a decline in diversity of
ecosystem. This increase prevents sunlight from penetrating, making it difficult to

photosynthesis and therefore, the production of oxygen, with which at a moment

it becomes unfeasible for the existence of the majority of the species that
previously formed the ecosystem (Arohuanca Calisaya, 2016).

Figure 3.1 Diagram of the Eutrophication process

Source: (Arohuanca Calisaya, 2016)

 Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to
to conduct electric current, and therefore, it is the opposite of electrical resistance.
It is a variable that depends on the amount of dissolved salts in a liquid. The unit
The commonly used measurement is siemens/cm (S/cm), microsiemens/cm.
(µS/cm), or millisiemens/cm (mS/cm). In aqueous solutions, the value of the
Conductivity is directly proportional to the concentration of dissolved solids.
Therefore, the higher that concentration, the greater the conductivity will be,
As can be seen in the values noted below (Resourser, 2013):

Pure water: 0.055 µS/cm.

Distilled water: 0.5 µS/cm.
Mountain water: 1.0 µS/cm.
500-800 µS/cm

Turbidity
Turbidity is caused by suspended particles or colloids (clays, silt,
finely divided earth, etc.). The turbidity is caused by the particles that
they form colloidal systems; that is to say, those that by their size, are found
suspended particles reduce the transparency of water to a greater or lesser extent. The

Turbidity measurement is carried out using a turbidimeter or nephelometer. The

The units used are generally nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).
Recently, the presence of released asbestos fibers has gained importance.
of the asbestos-cement accessories of the distribution systems as a factor
causing turbidity in drinking water (Zahariev et al., 2009).

V. METHODOLOGY
Materials and Equipment
Samples
River water collected on November 29
River water freshly collected on the same day from the laboratory December 6
Well water
University water
 Materials
4 bottles for sample storage.
Masking tape for labeling containers
Thermometer for measuring the temperature of the samples
Graduated beakers for measuring the volume of samples
Multiparameter to measure pH, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen.
Distilled water
Notebook for notes

Clothing
Apron or cloth
Cofia
Mask (face mask)
Gloves

5.2. Procedure
Listen carefully to the instructor's instructions about the
functioning of the multiparameter.
Place the water samples in labeled beakers.
Ensure that the multiparameter is properly calibrated.
Introduce the electrode to measure pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and
electrical conductivity in each of the samples.
After each measurement, clean the used electrodes with water
distilled.
Take note of the results of each measurement in Table 1.
Create a flowchart of the procedure.
Carry out the analysis of the results and draw conclusions.
Compare the results obtained with the current regulations.
 Flowchart of the Procedure

START

Place the samples in glasses

labeled precipitates

Calibrate the multiparameter

p H
Introduce the electrode in each one
temperature
sample
dissolved oxygen
electrical conductivity
Carry out the analysis of the
results and formulate conclusions

Compare the results with the

current regulations

THE END

VI. DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORK

Objective 1: Understand the functioning and perform measurements with the

multiparameter, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity.

Table No. 1.
Analysis of the waters with the multiparameter
TYPE OF pH VOLUME TEMPERATURE OXYGEN Conductivity
No SAMPLE DISSOLVED ELECTRIC
Fresh river water
1 collected. 200 ml 11°C 1.43 785
7.47
River water
2 collected on the day 200 ml 7.63 6.2°C 1.31 617
November 29.
3 Well water. 200 ml 7.53 8.6°C 0.73 1073
4 Water from the 200 ml 8.19 7.6°C 1.40 172.8
university.
Objective 2. Compare the results obtained with the current regulations.
According to DS N° 031-2010-SA, regulation on the quality of water for consumption
Human aims to guarantee its safety, preventing risk factors.
sanitary facilities, as well as protecting and promoting the health and well-being of the population.

The chemical parameters that affect the aesthetic and organoleptic quality of water
for human consumption, they must not exceed the concentrations or values indicated in
table 2 of this Regulation.

Table No. 2.
Maximum permissible limits for organoleptic quality parameters

No. PARAMETERS UNIT OF MAXIMUM LIMIT

MEASURE PERMISSIBLE
1 Smell ------ Acceptable
2 Flavor ------ Acceptable
3 Color UCV scale Pt/Co 15
4 Turbidity UNT 5
5 pH pH value 6.5 to 8.5
6 Conductivity (25°C) micromhos per centimeter 1,500
7 Total solids mg L-1 1 000
dissolved
8 Chlorides mg Cl - L -1 250
9 Sulfates mg SO4 = L-1 250
10 Total hardness mg CaCO3 L-1 500
11 Ammonia mg N L-1 1.5
12 Iron mg Fe L-1 0.3
13 Manganese mg Mn L-1 0.4
14 Aluminum mg Al L-1 0.2
15 Copper mg Cu L-1 2.0
16 Zinc mg Zn L-1 3.0
17 Sodium mg Na L-1 200

UCV = True Color Unit

UNT = Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
pH
According to DS No. 031-2010-SA, the acceptable pH range is from 6.5 to 8.5.
Upon analyzing the measurements taken, it is observed that all samples are present.
within this allowed range. Below are the pH values
obtained:
 a) Recently collected river water: pH of 7.47 (within the permitted range).
b) River water collected on November 29: pH of 7.63 (within the
permitted range).
c) Well water: pH of 7.53 (within the allowed range).
d) University water: pH of 8.19 (within the permitted range).
Based on these measurements, we can say that all samples comply with the
limits set by current regulations DS N° 031-2010-SA regarding pH.
However, constant monitoring must be maintained to ensure that these
values remain within the permitted limits over time.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
When evaluating the results of electrical conductivity according to regulation DS No. 031-
2010-SA, which establishes a maximum permissible limit of 1,500, we can observe the
values obtained in the measurements taken:
a) Freshly collected river water (11°C): 785 (within the permitted range).
b) River water collected on November 29 (6.2°C): 617 (within the range
allowed).
c) Well water (8.6°C): 1073 (within the permitted range).
d) University water (7.6°C): 172.8 (within the permitted range).
According to the results, all samples meet the limits
established by regulations regarding electrical conductivity. It is important
highlight that the values obtained are below the maximum permissible limit of
1,500 established by DS N° 031-2010-SA.

VII. CONCLUSIONS

Comprehensive measurements were carried out using the multiparameter.

(Temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductivity). Each water sample
freshly collected river water, river water collected on November 29, river water
the well and water from the university) was subjected to a detailed analysis to evaluate its
quality in terms of these parameters.
 Regarding the regulation DS N° 031-2010-SA, which establishes maximum limits
permissible for pH and electrical conductivity, it was verified that all samples of
water meets the established standards.
For the pH, the values obtained in the measurements are within the range.
acceptable from 6.5 to 8.5, according to the regulations.

As for electrical conductivity, all values are below the

maximum permissible limit of 1,500, according to the established regulations.
These results indicate that the analyzed water samples meet the
criteria established by regulations in terms of pH and electrical conductivity.

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS

Make sure to properly calibrate the multiparameter before each series of

measurements.
Develop standardized procedures for sampling and measurements.

Familiarize yourself with the relevant local or international regulations for the
measurements being carried out

Ensure that the samples are taken representatively and that they are not
contaminated.

Record the environmental conditions during the measurements, such as the temperature
environment and weather conditions.
Consider participating in external quality control programs or proficiency testing.
These programs allow you to compare your results with those of other laboratories and
evaluate the precision and accuracy of your measurements.
Perform regular maintenance on the measuring equipment to ensure its proper functioning.
operation. This includes cleaning, calibration, and repair as necessary.
necessary.
IX. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE

Arohuanca Calisaya, C. A. (2016). "EVALUATION OF NITROGEN LOAD AND

PHOSPHORUS IN THE MAIN POINT SOURCES THAT DISCHARGE INTO
"LAKE TITICACA AS A SOURCE OF EUTROPHICATION PUNO 2015." Journal
CENIC. Sciences Biologicals, 152(3), 28. Retrieved from
Unable to access the provided file link.
[Link] [Link] [Link]
[Link]/pdfs/Guias_ALAD_11_Nov_2013.pdf [Link]
acmed.v66n3.60060.%0A[Link]

Belendez, A. (2017). Heat and temperature. Department of Physics, Systems Engineering

and Signal Theory, 1–21.

Escobar, J. (2002). The pollution of rivers and its effects on coastal areas and the sea.
InSeries natural resources and infrastructure (Vol. 50).

Garcia, M. (2011). Acid-base disturbances in critically ill patients. Review Article,

28(1), 46–55.

IDEAM. (2007). Environmental Information System. Dane, 3. Retrieved from

Unable to access the content from the link provided.
[Link]

Méndez, J. P., & Marchán, J. (2008). Situational Diagnosis of Systems

Wastewater Treatment in Peru's EPS and Proposed Solutions.
Legal Deposit at the National Library of Peruo2008 - 14631, 1–80. Retrieved
from
Unable to access or translate the content of the provided URL.
df

Ministry of the Environment. (2013). Water quality and water pollution

superficial. (2006), 1–2.

Oikawa, S., Tsuda, M., Okamura, Y., & Urabe, T. (1984). Characterization of waters
residuals and the biochemical oxygen demand. Journal of the American Chemical
 Society,106(22), 6751–6755. [Link]

Pan American Health Organization. (2012). Study of the quality of sources used
for human consumption and mitigation plan for contamination from domestic use and
agrochemicals in Apurimac and Cusco. Ecofluidos Engineers S.A., 105. Retrieved from
Unable to access external documents or websites.

Resources, C. (2013). Electrical Conductivity/Salinity. [Link], 4. Retrieved from

Unable to access the content of the link provided. Please provide the text you would like translated.
[Link]

Sánchez, J. (2019). Natural resources, environment and sustainability: 70 years of

thought of the CEPAL. In Administrative Law Journal (Vol. 4). Retrieved
from chrome-
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/[Link]
handle/11362/44785/1/S1900378_en.pdf%0A Investigations@[Link]%0Ahttp
://[Link]/glas/sp/[Link] [Link]
ech

Sánchez, O. F.

Truque, P. A. (2003). Harmonization of drinking water standards in the Americas.

Harmonization of Drinking Water Standards in the Americas, 1(1), 17.
Retrieved from
The provided link does not contain translatable text.
pdf

Complutense University of Madrid. (2001). Water Indicator Variable - Oxygen

dissolved in water. Repository 1–4. Retrieved from
The provided content is a URL, and I cannot access external links or content directly. Please provide the text you would like translated.

Zahariev, T., Anastassov, V., Girov, K., Goranova, E., Grozdinski, L., Kniajev, V., &
Stankev, M. (2009). PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY.
International Angiology, 28(4), 303–310.
X. ANNEXES

Figure 1. The 4 samples and materials to be used in the laboratory practice.

Figure 2. Place the water samples in labeled beakers.

Figure 3. Insert the electrode to measure pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and
electrical conductivity in each of the samples.
Figure 4. Temperature results for each sample

Figure 5. results of each measurement in the multiparameter.

XI. QUESTIONNAIRE

a) Can conductivity be used as a predictive parameter of the

Hardness of water? Justify your answer.
The conductivity of water, although influenced by ions such as calcium and
magnesium related to hardness cannot be considered a direct predictor.
from the hardness due to the presence of other dissolved ions and external factors that
they affect conductivity; thus, specific hardness measurements that evaluate the
Calcium and magnesium concentration are necessary for an accurate assessment.

b) What methods exist for determining pH? Indicate which ones are and
explain them.
There are several methods to determine the pH of a solution. Some of the
the most common methods are:
Indicator paper: It consists of the use of papers impregnated with
pH indicators that change color according to the pH of the solution.
The paper is immersed in the sample and the resulting color is compared with
a reference scale.
Glass electrodes: A specific glass electrode is used for
measure the hydrogen potential in a solution. The generated signal is
convert it into a pH value. This method is common in instruments of
laboratory and portable devices.
Liquid chemical indicators: Solutions containing are used.
pH indicators that change color in the presence of acids or bases.
The indicator is added to the sample and the color change is observed for
determine the pH.
Ion-selective electrodes (ISE): It is similar to the electrodes of
glass, but specific for hydrogen ions. It is based on the measurement of
potential generated by the difference in ion concentration of
hydrogen in the solution.
 Electronic pH meters: A glass electrode or a
ISE together with an electronic meter that converts the signal into a value
pH numerical. These meters are precise and widely used.
in laboratory environments.
Equivalence point in a titration: In acid-base titrations, the
point at which the amount of acid is equal to the amount of base added
is associated with a specific pH. The determination of the pH at this point
Can you indicate the pH value of the solution.
c) Research how to measure the flow rate in a river
Measuring the flow of a river is important to understand and monitor the flow of
water at a specific moment. There are several methods to measure the flow.
and the choice of method will depend on factors such as the required accuracy, the
available budget and the specific conditions of the river. Here are some
common techniques:
Floater Method: This method involves throwing a floater into the river and
measure the time it takes to cover a known distance. Known
the speed and the cross-sectional area of the river can be calculated
the flow.
Gauges: Gauges are structures installed in the river that
they allow measuring the flow of water. Some common types include the
Parshall flume and Venturi flume. These structures measure the height
from the water and use specific equations to estimate the flow rate.
Wind vanes: Wind vanes are devices that measure the speed of the wind.
water on the surface of the river. Multiplying the speed by the area of the
cross-section, the flow rate can be calculated.
Controlled Discharge Current Method: This method involves
control and measure the amount of water released from a dam or structure
similar. Measuring the speed and the cross-sectional area, one
can determine the flow.
 Ultrasonic Meters: These devices use ultrasonic waves.
to measure the speed of water. The speed is combined with the area of
the cross-section to calculate the flow.
Mathematical Modeling: Mathematical models can be used to
estimate the flow rate based on topographic data, conditions
hydraulics and water level measurements.
Pressure sensors: Pressure sensors measure water pressure
at a specific point and can be used to calculate the water level,
which are then used to determine the flow rate.
Visual Observation and Aerial Photographs: The visual observation of the
river and the analysis of aerial photographs can also provide
information about the flow, especially in areas where it cannot be
use direct methods.

d) What does dissolved oxygen indicate?

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure that indicates the amount of oxygen
present in the water in dissolved form. This parameter is crucial for health of
aquatic ecosystems and to assess water quality. Dissolved oxygen
it is essential for the survival of aquatic organisms, such as fish,
invertebrates and microorganisms, since many of them depend on oxygen
to carry out vital processes, such as breathing.

e) What are the time intervals between sampling or type of sample and the
water analysis?
The time intervals between water sampling and analysis vary depending on the
nature of the parameters and the objectives of monitoring. Some parameters
can be analyzed immediately at the sampling site, while others
they require time for processing in the laboratory. The availability of
results can range from a few minutes, in the case of on-site analysis, to several
days in more detailed analysis. The proper preservation of samples and the
 Planning of regular sampling programs are important considerations
to ensure the accuracy of the results.

f) For water sampling in distribution systems, wells, rivers or

currents, lakes, and reservoirs that should be taken into account and how it should

to be realized.
Water sampling from different sources, such as distribution systems, wells,
rivers, lakes, and reservoirs require a careful and standardized approach to
ensure the representativeness of the samples and the accuracy of the results.
Here are some general considerations and guidelines for water sampling.
in each type of source:
Sampling in Distribution Systems:
Selection of Sampling Points: Choose sampling points
representatives from various areas of the distribution system to obtain
a complete picture of the water quality in the network.
Avoid Contaminations during Sampling: Make sure not to
contaminate the samples during collection. Use methods of
aseptic sampling and carefully clean the equipment before each collection
as a sample.
Sampling in Constant Flows: Perform sampling during periods
of constant flow to obtain more representative samples.

Sampling in Wells:
Disinfection of Equipment: Disinfect the sample equipment before use.
used to avoid contamination of the samples.
Sampling Depth: Conduct sampling at different
depths if it is relevant to assess water quality in
different strata of the aquifer.
Sampling in Rivers or Currents:
Strategic Location of Sampling Points: Select sites
representatives along the river, considering the variations in the
 flow velocity, depth and proximity to sources of
contamination.
Sampling in Different Climatic Conditions: Carry out samplings in
different climatic conditions to capture seasonal variations.
In-Depth Sampling: If relevant, carry out the sampling at
different depths to assess possible quality gradients of the
water.

Sampling in Lakes and Reservoirs:

Strategic Sampling Points: Select sampling points
representative in areas that reflect the general conditions of the lake or
reservoir.
Avoid Surface Pollution: Avoid contamination
superficial during sampling, especially in shallow lakes
profound.
In-Depth Sampling: Conduct sampling at different
depths to assess the conditions in different strata of the
body of water.

g) How does pH influence the efficiency of water treatment?

The pH of water plays a crucial role in the efficiency of water treatment.
It affects processes such as coagulation, flocculation, disinfection, and stability of
treated water. An appropriate pH favors the formation of flocculants, improves the
effectiveness of disinfectants like chlorine and facilitates the elimination of
contaminants. In addition, the pH influences the stability of the treated water, the
microbial growth, the formation of deposits and chemical reactions
specific. Controlling and adjusting the pH constantly is essential for
guarantee the efficiency of the treatments and meet the standards of
water quality.
h) What are the factors that affect conductivity?
The electrical conductivity of water, which measures its ability to conduct
electric current is affected by various factors. The concentration of
ions, the temperature, the purity of the water, the presence of contaminants, the
dilution, microbial activity, the presence of dissolved gases, the
geological features and seasonal variations are key elements that
influence conductivity. Understanding these factors is essential for
accurately interpret the results of the conductivity measurements and
evaluate the water quality based on its ability to conduct electricity.