SPECIALIZATION IN ORIENTATION

1. Explain what a topographic map is and what is expected to be found on it, and know three useful examples.
from a topographic map.
A topographic map is a simple photograph of a piece of land, which
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shows us all the
details of that piece of land using special signs called topographic signs. A map is a
graphical representation of the earth's surface.
The uses of a topographic map can be the following:
A. Set the route to follow on an excursion when the place is not known.
B. If it gets lost or misplaced, you have a map of the place that will help you get out.
C. To know the exact location of a specific place.
of the problem.
D. To gain a more detailed understanding of some specific aspects of an area in
particular.
2. Identify at least twenty signs and symbols used in topographic maps.
Define and explain the following topographical concepts.
A. Elevation.
a. Contour lines: They are the lines that represent points at the same elevation on the
sea level. The difference in elevation between a contour line and the
The following is called equidistance of level curves or contour interval.
numbers that indicate the height of each contour line are called elevation points and the maps are like this
represented are dimensioned plans. The contour lines speak of the formations that
it has the land, where they appear more separated the land descends gradually and if
they appear together with others, the ground rises very quickly and the ascent of it could
be difficult. If they come together, they indicate a steep cliff. The top of a mountain is usually
indicated by a point or a triangle and a number, which is the height above sea level
March. This is the most precise method of all systems for representing relief.
Each curve connects points that are at the same height.
Wall maps: They are intended for teaching and are usually used to represent the
elevation using distinctive colors. Each color covers the areas whose height
corresponds to a specific difference in level.
c. Lines of maximum slope: This is the simplest method to express the
elevation, this uses short lines drawn from the high position of the land, from
there it indicates the relief, making the thickness of the line greater as the
slope. The contour lines represent the terrain well, but not
they indicate accurately the degree of slope inclination, or the actual height of the
land.
[Link] method: It consists of representing the relief by shading the slopes of the
elevations, in proportion to their greater or lesser slope; the steeper slopes more
abrupt ones appear darker than the soft ones. This method is very striking, as it
It visualizes the relief very well, but it has the flaw that it cannot determine the
elevation of any point, which is possible on a contour map.
Soil formation: Refers to the type of material that the soil is composed of,
this can be gummy, clayey or sandy
B. Distance.
a. Scale: The scale is called the constant relationship that exists between the distances of
land and those corresponding to the map.
b. Measure: It is the scale that helps us to assess the distances of the lands or
regions represented in the sketch or knowing the distances that we
separate from the different places. The scales can be represented in three ways.
ways
i.
Words or numbers: 1 centimeter = 100 meters.
ii.
Graph: A line or bar divided into fractions that represent
certain units. 0_____1_____2_____3_____4_____5 kilometers
By means of a representative fraction: In the form of broken numbers.
If the scale is 1/10,000, this means that all the things represented in
iii.
the plan is 10,000 times smaller than the original size. If you have a plan of
scale of 1:25,000, a distance of 8 centimeters measured on it corresponds to 0.08 x
25,000 = 2,000 meters.
c. Distance: To know how much you have to walk, or to find out the distance in
where a place is located, measure the distances on the map. Take a little piece of paper
of paper, marks on one of its edges the distance between the points on the map, and
compare this distance with the printed scale, or you can copy the scale in the
paper and use these marks as a measuring unit. To know the length of
a path or river with some approximation, take a thread and adjust it point by point
point to the trajectory to be measured and compare the length of the thread with the scale.
4. Explain what a compass is and the precautions that should be taken when using it.
A. Appropriately called 'marine compass', a compass is an instrument through which
how horizontal directions or bearings are determined, based on the property
known as the magnetic needle. The magnetic needle is a small bar of steel.
magnetized, usually in a prism shape and of reduced thickness. If the needle
magnetic is suspended and balanced so that it can move freely in
a horizontal plane spontaneously orients itself at each point on the earth, according to a
a determined direction, which is practically North - South. The compass needle has
one half in blued blue and the other in metallic gray, with the blue one indicating the
north. The needle rests on an axis called Style, which is screwed into the center of
a cylindrical box called Mortar, which is closed with a glass, to prevent things from getting in
inside the movements of the air. Generally, at the bottom of the box (Limbo) is found
marked a circle with special indication of the four cardinal points or almost always
it features the Compass Rose, dividing the circle into 360º.
The compass is a sensitive instrument and requires certain essential care when
the needle should not be used, it must be immobilized using a lock that compasses have for
It must never be carried in the pants pocket and especially keep it away from
metal objects that have some effect on the needle.
5. Know and explain the following terms.
A. Azimuth: Angle formed with the meridian of a place by the vertical plane of a star.
B. Inverse azimuth: It is the direction opposite to the azimuth.
C. Circulation method to determine the direction: It is the way to find the direction to
a certain point within a given direction. It is done while maintaining the direction.
desired at the front and keeping the compass at waist level and with the arrow of
direction pointing directly at the point in question. The mortar of the compass is turned.
(box) until the magnetic needle aligns with the arrow printed on the bottom of the compass
where is north direction. Read the numbers printed on the outer ring of the mortar
until you reach the point where the direction arrow matches one of the numbers
from the ring. This is your reading of the direction in degrees.
6. Give the nomenclature of an orientation compass.
We have seen that the compass rose is divided into 360° of a circle. These degrees are used
to indicate the directions. An address expressed in this way, in degrees, is called Azimuth
Magnetic, from the Arabic Al: The and Cimut: Path, thus translates to 'The Path'. Considering the above,
we will give some examples of what the nomenclature of a compass would be: Azimuth of 000 or 360º
the nomenclature for the North would be, the NE would be an azimuth of 045º, the NW would be an azimuth of 315º.
0°
Starting from the north and going clockwise, the main points are:
North, Northeast, East Southeast, South Southwest, West and Northwest.
8. ¿Cuál es la utilidad de orientar un mapa? y ¿Qué es orientar un mapa?
A. The usefulness of orienting a map extends to the moment of taking a walk, it is in
The starting point wishing to begin, the question arises: In what direction to move forward? If
It is at a crossroads. Will you walk forward, to the right, to the left, or towards?
back? You'll know as soon as you’ve "gotten oriented on the map."
B. To orient a map means to align all the directions or places on it with the
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same addresses or places of the land. The first thing we should
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to do is to place it in
in such a way that the map directions match reality. E
commonly the Nautical Rose or an arrow that indicates north. Almost always north
it appears at the top of the map. If you don't have a compass, align the map in such a way
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that the side representing the east corresponds to the east, right
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well, what is it
approximately where the sun rises each morning.
9. Be able to orient a map by inspection and by the compass.
A. By inspection: The surroundings must be studied to find the
whether a hill, a building, or a town is displayed on the map
find the topographic sign that identifies the point of reference
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a point of reference
me. Check the map and
.
Rotate the map until
topographic ignorance in the
line address of
that the line goes from the place where you are on the map, to the
map that identifies the reference point, match in the same
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your real position on the ground and the real position of the reference point. You will then have a
map oriented by "inspection."
B. By compass: Find an arrow printed on the map that indicates the
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magnetic poles,
place the compass in a position close to that arrow, with the north line
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sure of your compass so
parallel as possible. Rotate the map without moving the compass on the paper until the
the tip of the needle should align with the letter N printed at the bottom of the
oriented.
Compass and you're all set.
10. Demonstrate how to mark a magnetic azimuth.
A. Place the edge of the plastic base or board directly on the route on the map.
What do you want to continue? Observe the engraving.
B. Firmly hold the plastic base and turn the Mortar, without taking into consideration the
magnetized needle, until the printed arrow on the compass is parallel to the north lines
sure that appear on the map. Now you have the reading in degrees of the route, at the place
where the plastic arrow and the mortar's degree graduation meet.
C. To follow the direction directly on the ground, hold the compass in front of you, with the
arrow's direction pointing directly ahead. Slowly turn until the
the magnetic needle settled exactly over the figure of the arrow printed on the compass.
Direction arrow, now points in the desired direction. Choose a reference point and
walk towards it, then choose another point of reference and so on until you reach
the goal.
11. Demonstrate how to march oriented by a magnetic azimuth.
After marking the magnetic azimuth, we can walk in that direction, we must
stop every ten or fifteen meters to orient ourselves again as the man does not walk in
straight line and easily deviates to the left or right of its path.
12. Explain the following terms.
A. Plastic base or board: Topographic instrument used to draw maps.
a
a
B. Geographic North: It is the north that is marked on maps, that is the direction towards
The geographical north is true north.
It is the direction of the compass towards the magnetic north pole.
D. Magnetic Declination: The magnetic needle of the compass points to the p
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the magnetic north and
not the geographic pole or true pole, which is the point where it passes
a
land and where the meridians converge in the north. As these p
they are located
separated by an approximate distance of 2,250 kilometers, in c
we will need to take into account a certain angle of deviation, which is measured
magnetic declination, that is, the angle formed by the compass needle
line that indicates true north.
a
from the place of the earth
in degrees and it is called
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13. Determine the direction without the help of a compass, using the following methods.
I. METHODS FOR NAVIGATING WITHOUT A COMPASS.
A. Clock method: Place a clock in the palm of your hand, with the hour hand...
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aa
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it was upwards and with
with accuracy,
calm and turning the clock
. In these
the small hand (hour hand) pointing to the sun, this last one was achieved
placing a match or toothpick at the edge of the clock, in vertical position
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until the shadow cast by the stick covers the hand
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q
conditions and without changing the position of the clock, divide the angle between into two equal parts
the schedule and the number 12 on the clock, this line will be oriented to
the south in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the north in the Southern Hemisphere.
B. Shadow tip method.
a. Plant a stick or a bare branch in the ground, making sure to do
I tear it in a piece of land.
quite flat so that a clearly visible shadow can be cast. Mark
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that is the formed line
by the shadow. Place a stone, a twig, or another stop sign
c
c
go to the place
corresponding to the tip of the shadow.
b. Wait for the tip of the shadow to move a few centimeters. If the stick measures a
Metro, it will take about 15 minutes. The longer it is, the faster.
a
a
mind will move
its shadow. Indicate the new position of the tip of the shadow.
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the same
previous procedure.
c. Draw a line between the two marks to have an approximate east-west direction.
The first point always indicates the west, and the second the east, at any hour of the day and in
any part of the earth.
d. By drawing a second line perpendicular to the first, the direction will be obtained.
approximately north-south, so one is already practically oriented
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done and can be directed
to wherever you wish.
e. Tilt the pole to achieve a more convenient shadow due to its size or direction not
influences the accuracy of this method. Thus, walking on sloped or uneven floors
a lot of vegetation does not need to waste valuable time searching
how much is required to mark the two ends of the shadow is a pe
no larger than the palm of the hand. The stick can be planted in which
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q
q
flat land. Everything
flat dream space
wanted from its edges.
It is not entirely essential to use a stick or a branch to
the same result is obtained with any fixed object (the base of a
Well, the only thing that matters is to mark the end of the shadow.
aa
a
this operation; the
branch, a stem, etc.
C. The sundial is not a clock in the meaning that is ordinarily attributed
u
u
Let's go to this word, now
which divides the day into twelve unequal and unchanging 'hours' sea
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at 6 in the morning to the
quite satisfactory
being a true
dawn and six in the afternoon at sunset. Still, it turns out to be an instrument
to know the time when there are no other clocks. Even available
the sundial can be used to 'preserve' the direction already obtained
tip of the shadow. It will be enough to align the mechanical clock time with solar time
and then serve using the 'clock method' that we will explain next. This saves ten
fifteen minutes of waiting while the shadow moves, allowing
instantly the address as many times as necessary for
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given by the method of the
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summer also applies here: the northern line is then situated between the needle of the
hours and the '1' of the clock. The temperate zones extend between 23 1/2º and 66 1/20 of latitude
in both hemispheres. This method is not without errors, esp
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e
especially at latitudes
low points, and it can make us go in circles. To avoid it, improvise.
make the necessary adjustments with the authentic clock, repeating the
during the march.
a sundial and
operation every hour
E. Method of equal shadows for orientation: It is a var
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before more precise of
shadow tip method, which can be used in latitudes below 660 and in
any time of year.
a. Plant a stick or branch vertically in the ground,
space flat enough for the projected shadow
a
taking advantage of a
a
, that must measure to
less than 30 cm., it can be distinguished clearly. Mark the tip of the shadow with a
stone, twig, etc. This should be done for 5 to 10 minutes
s
before noon
(solar time).
b. Draw a semicircle using the shadow co
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the radio and the base of
stick as center. For this layout, a rope or a cord can be useful.
shoes.
c. As we approach noon, the shadow
Short. After 12, it extends until it crosses the arch.
d. Although, as we said, this version of the method of the
is more precise than the first, it is subject to two
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to become more
p
shade
conditions:
I.
It should be done around noon.
ii.
To carry it out, the observer must watch.
the shadow and conclude the
third stage at the exact moment when the
reach the bow.
tip of the shadow
E. North Star: Before using the North Star to follow a direction, you must
locate it. The easiest way to find it is by the Big Dipper, follow
n
n
give the address of your
pointer stars Derac and Dubhe. If the Big Dipper is not visible, pro
find it by the pointing stars of the Swan, the Dragon, or by the
the Big Dipper to the highest point of the 'W' of Cassiopeia. It can also be
that the North Star is at the tip of the tail of the Little Bear. The figure
these stars.
probably you can
line that goes from Mizar to
The next step is to 'bring the North Star down to the ground', so that you can draw a line.
with north-south direction. Drive a rod about one and a half meters into the ground, take another one more
cut, about 30 to 50 centimeters long and look towards the North Star through the ends of the
two sticks, as with the aim of a rifle. When the ends of the two sticks and the North Star
stay in a straight line, stick the short pole in the ground. The line that connects the bases of these two
The pole will point north. Another line at right angles will indicate east and west.
II. HOW TO NAVIGATE AT NIGHT
At night, the stars can help us find the cardinal points.
In the Southern Hemisphere (south of the Equator), the constellation Southern Cross (Crux) helps to locate the
approximate direction of geographic South, starting from there, the other directions.
The location of this constellation is approximately to the South, but if you don't know which way is South, then
information is not very valid, you must practice by searching for it now and knowing its movements (like the
watch hands over the South Celestial), so that when you really need to use it, it becomes easier.
This group consists of four stars clearly visible due to their brightness and takes the shape of a cross.
somewhat inclined. The two stars that make up its long axis are called 'guards'. Extending the length of
this axis about three and a half times from the foot of the cross to an imaginary point, we will have the direction
approximately from the southern sky. Then lower the view in a straight line from that point to the horizon and choose.
a feature of the land that serves as a signal.
In the Northern Hemisphere, you must find the North Star (or Pole Star); for this, look for the
Big Dipper. The two posterior stars of the quadrilateral are called "guards". From the
"guards" in a straight line (and at a distance five times that which separates them) is the North Star.
The Big Dipper rotates slowly around the North Star, so it does not always appear in the same place.
position.
It can also be used as a reference the constellation Cassiopeia, a group of five very stars
brilliant that appears in the shape of a tilted 'M' (or a 'W' at the bottom of the sky). The North Star
is located in a straight line from the central star, more or less at the same distance as from the
Big Dipper. Cassiopeia slowly turns around the North Star and almost always is next to the Big Dipper.
The Big Dipper is in front. This position is very useful when the Big Dipper is at the bottom of the vault.
celeste, you hide from our sight behind the vegetation or the terrain.
III. OBSERVATION OF NATURE.
It may happen that one day we need to orient ourselves and cannot use any method seen until now.
Now, we can turn to the observation of nature, which gives us clues for orientation.
although they are not very accurate. Some of them may be: Trees, walls, trunks, and rocks
An isolated tree can provide us with a means of orientation. Its trunk is usually more developed.
to the North than the South, as the North side receives more sun.
To know the cardinal points, we will have to cut a trunk approximately vertical and
We will notice that the wood grains that form the cut are wider on the North side than on the opposite side.
The walls or partitions are usually drier on the North side because the South side never receives the
sun rays, this causes higher humidity. We can see this humidity because it
It translates to a greenish color due to the mosses that require moisture and little sunlight. The same
We can observe on the trunks of trees and on the rocks, that mosses always cover the South side.
Natural indicators:
Nature is more adapted to the Earth's magnetic field than humans are.
Plants always grow towards the sun. Sunflowers follow the movement of the sun across the sky.
Tree rings are often much wider on the sunlit side.
Some birds, like weavers, build
their nests only on the west side of the
trees.
Some termite nests are built following
a north-south axis. In this way, they receive the maximum
heat during the morning and afternoon, and they are protected
from the noon sun.
14. Draw a topographic map of an uninhabited area. Take into account the following information when
elaborate the map.
To draw a map, you will need a pencil, a thick sheet of paper or thin cardboard, and a board or
Cardboard to lean on. Prepare your paper by drawing a number of parallel lines separated by about 5.
centimeters between each one. These stripes represent the north-south magnetic lines, which you are going to
use to transport the compass directions to the map. To make a map, you have to take into account
count the following three factors.
A. Directions: These are obtained with the help of the compass, they are simply the readings in
degrees that you learned to take. The final drawing of your map must contain an arrow that
indicate the magnetic north and show in this way how the map is oriented. For
take the direction, take a reading with the compass in the usual way: stopping the
compass in leveled position, with the arrow pointed in a straight line, rotate the box
from the compass until the arrow drawn at the bottom matches the magnetized needle that
It is pointing north. The compass is now ready and set for the first direction.
Transport this reading to the map by placing the compass over the paper with the edge of the base.
touching the point that marks the place where you are, turn the entire compass in such a way that
the north-south lines of the compass align parallel to the north-south lines that
you traced on your map, now draw a line along one of the sides of the base of the
compass.
B. Distances: These are achieved by the steps you measure, heel striking the step. A good
scale for a sketch is 10 steps in the field equal to 5 centimeters on the map, 40 steps
on the ground equal to 2.5 centimeters, 100 steps equal to 6 centimeters. When a map
it is finished, include a scale in centimeters equal to the one you have calculated in steps.
To find your stride distance, use a 10-meter cord to mark a course in
straight line of 60 meters. Walk this distance several times counting the amount each time.
of steps. Divide the 60 meters by the number of steps taken. If you covered the distance in
100 steps, your measure will be 60 centimeters. When you expect to do a lot of activity of
distance estimation, practice until you have the same distance in your stride.
To obtain the distance, walk to the point where the road turns and then estimate.
the number of steps given by the distance you obtain when taking a step. Mark the distance over
the guideline you just drew, remember that 5 centimeters are equal to 10 steps.
Then take the direction to the next point of your polygon. Transport it to your map as
You did it in the previous case and estimate the distance. Continue like this until you have finished the
polygonal. As you progress, indicate the main points you have noticed, the bridge.
that you crossed, a fence along the path, a house on one side of the road, a
barn, etc. If an object is resting at a certain distance outside the polygon, estimate the distance.
in steps and note it down. To cover the area you plan to lift, it may be extensive or there may be
long roads or streams, in any case, you need to decide on the route to take through the
area and the points from which you can take readings in degrees and measure distances. A
this route is called 'open polygon' or can start and end at the same place, in this
This case is called a 'closed polygon'. To demonstrate that you know how to make maps,
you can prepare a "polygon" of at least one kilometer in an open place, with turns
and uprisings. After you decide on the area to raise, choose a point on your paper that is
convenient for staking your sketch. Choose it in such a way that you can be sure to get it in
the entire map on the paper. The first route of your survey is in front of you from the
the place where you are standing to the place where the road makes a defined curve. When
if you have covered your entire area, your polygon will look very similar to one another. Note that the
The starting and ending point do not match and are marked as 'closure error'.
a better surveyor will finish a polygon like this, the same way. This is normal, a
unless the error is very large. In this case, you have to go through your polygonal again.
to review your addresses and distances.
C. Details: These are shown using topographic symbols. Because your sketch
it has a larger scale than ordinary topographic maps, the symbols must be
much larger. In addition to ordinary topographic symbols, you will want to develop
yours, indicating tents, campfire circle, etc. Finish your map preferably with
ink, drawing the details and topographic symbols that show the aspects of.
Remember that the map will not be complete until you have marked it with the arrow that
indicate the north, the scales in steps and meters, name of the covered area, the name of the
person who raised the map and the date it was raised. Do not forget that the details of the
scales are very important when raising the map.
15. Demonstrate skill in using the compass on a hike of about five kilometers, without
have another point of reference other than this one for orientation. Consult it at least ten times.