WELDING PROCESSES

In the following paragraphs, the most commonly used welding processes will be discussed along with their
operational characteristics, the equipment required for its proper operation, the
electrodes and consumables used and the other aspects that must be considered for
achieve satisfactory results.

MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Manual metal arc welding (SMAW) is an electric arc process that produces the
coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc, between an electrode of
coated metal and the workpieces. The protection is obtained from the
decomposition of the coating, and the contribution mainly comes from the electrode. It does not
requires the application of pressure. Some common names for this process in
"welding with stick electrodes". A diagram of this process is shown in Figure.

Figure 1

The SMAW process is one of the most popular welding processes due to its simplicity and
Versatility. Manual arc welding can be used to weld both ferrous metals.
like some non-ferrous alloys thicker than gauge 18 (1.1 mm) in all the
positions. The arc is under the control of the welder. A slag coating remains on the
welding surface and must be removed. The most popular use for this process is in
the welding of mild steels and low alloy steels.

The manual arc welding process is basically a manually operated process.

The electrode is secured in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates the tip of the electrode.
in relation to the metal being welded. The arc is ignited, maintained, and turned off.
manually by the welder.

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TEAM
The equipment for the manual arc welding process consists of a power source,
welding cable, electrode holder and ground connection clamp or accessory.

Power Supply. The purpose of the power supply is to provide electrical power.
(of the appropriate current and voltage) to maintain a welding arc. The source of
power for manual arc welding must be of the constant current (CC) type. The
The normal current range is from 25 to 500 amperes and voltages from 17 to 45 volts.
depending on the type and size of the electrode to be used. Many sizes and types of sources
of power have been designed for manual arc welding. Most of the sources of
They operate with an input electrical power of 230 or 460 volts. The sources of
power that operates with an input voltage of 200 or 575 volts are options
available.

Electrode holder. The electrode holder serves as a clamp-type device to hold the
electrode and transfer the current to the electrode. The insulated handle separates the hand from the welder.
from the welding circuit. The electrode holders are supplied in two types: compression and
type nozzle or torsion. The electrode holders come in various sizes and are
designed for their current carrying capacity.

Electrodes. The electrodes for manual arc welding consist of a core of

wire with a flux coating. The electrode coating determines its
usage capacity and provides the following properties:

1. The gas from the decomposition of certain ingredients of the coating, for
protect the arch from the atmosphere.
2. Deoxidizers to sweep and purify the deposited welding metal.
3. Slag formers to protect the welding metal from oxidation
deposited.
4. Ionizing elements to make the arc more stable and allow the electrode to operate longer.
smoothly with the alternating current.
5. Alloying elements to provide special characteristics to the metal of
deposited welding.
Iron powder to improve electrode productivity.

The size of the electrode is designated by the diameter of the wire core and by the length.
of the electrode: Coated electrodes are commonly available in
sizes from 1/16 in (1.6 mm) to 5/16 in (7.9 mm) in diameter. Common lengths are 9
in (230 mm) a 18 in (457 mm). However, for special applications, they can be obtained
lengths of up to 36 in (914 mm).

Table No 1 Resistance of electrodes for carbon steels

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The characteristics of usability capacity for the different types of electrodes are
standardized and defined by the American Welding Society. (AWS 5.1 Electrodes for steels
to carbon or AWS 5.5 Electrodes for low alloy steels.

Table No. 2 Indication of arc characteristics in SMAW electrodes

Stainless steel electrodes are classified according to the chemical analysis of the metal.
of welding and the type of welding current that can be used. An example of this is the
Designation E308-15. The E denotes the electrode. The 308 indicates the chemical composition of the
soldering metal. The 15 indicates that the electrode will be used with direct current.
positive electrode and alternating current.

Storage and drying conditions for electrodes

Some electrodes, such as the E6010 and E6011, require, to operate
adequately, have between 3 to 7% humidity in their coatings. On the other hand, the
ingredients of the coatings and compounds used to bind them,
they have an affinity for environmental humidity and combine with it
hygroscopically.

At the moment of welding, the hydrogen from this moisture causes effects
adverse effects in some steels under certain conditions. For applications in which
Hydrogen is harmful; specifically, electrode groups were formulated.
called "low hydrogen". Their coatings are made of components
inorganic substances that contain a minimum moisture.

These electrodes are designed to produce weld deposits with very low
hydrogen levels, and the moisture content (under the conditions provided by the
manufacturer or after refurbished), depending on its classification, must be of
0.6% at most (0.15% for some).

Due to the previous considerations, it is necessary for each type of electrode to be

stored, processed and handled under appropriate specific conditions. Each manufacturer
establish the proper storage and drying conditions for the electrodes
cutlery that it supplies.

Among this type of requirements, those stipulated in the Welding Code can be mentioned.
Structural for Steel ANSI/AWS D1.1 in its section "Fabrication". Such requirements
(paragraphs [Link] and 5.3.2-3 and table No 5.1) refer to the approved periods and to the
alternative periods established by tests for the exposure of the electrodes to
atmosphere.

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 Table No. 3 Storage Conditions of Electrodes
Exposed to the Air Drying conditions
AWS CLASSIFICATION In container ovens
Environment (b)
E6010 Ambient temperature Not recommended Not recommended
E6012, E6013, E6019, 80±20°F (30±10°C) with 200F (120C) up to 400F 1 hour at temperatures
E6020, E6022, E6027 a relative humidity (24°C) above the from 275 ± 25°F
E6014, E6024,E7020 maximum of 50% ambient temperature (135±15°C)
E7015, E7016, E7018, 50°F (30ºC) to 250º From 1 to 2 hours to
E7028, E7018M, Not recommended F (140°C) above the temperatures from 500 to
E7048 ambient temperature 800 °F (260° to 427°C)
Notes: After removing them from the manufacturer's packaging
Due to the inherent differences in the composition of the coatings, they should be consulted to
the manufacturers to know the exact drying conditions.
Some of these electrode classifications may be designed to meet the requirements of
low moisture absorption. This designation does not imply that storage is recommended in the
open air.

APPLICATION METHODS
The application method used in this process is manual, this is the most
widely used in arc welding processes due to its versatility,
portability and relatively simple and cheap equipment.

It is used in small and large workshops for the repair of various components, so
such as in industrial manufacturing, construction, and assembly of steel structures and others
commercial applications of metal joining.

It is used to weld carbon steels and low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum, and
its alloys, copper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, cast irons and also
to apply surface coatings.

Its main advantages, besides the mentioned ones, are as follows:

It can be used in any position (depending on the electrode used)
It can be used in the field and in the workshop.
It is applicable to a wide range of thicknesses (approximately 1.2 mm).
forward
The electrodes can bend in such a way that they can be used in blind spots.
Long cables can be used to access sites located at a great distance.
distance from the power source.
It is useful for welding complex structural assemblies.
It is the most popular process for welding pipes.
High-quality and high-strength joints can be obtained.
The work team is simple and economical.

The main limitations are as follows:

The quality of the joints largely depends on the skill of the welder.
The slag must be completely removed before applying the next step.
Due to the fact that the electrodes have a fixed length, the operations must
Stop after each electrode is consumed.
It has a relatively low deposit efficiency.
The portion of the electrode that is held by the electrode holder is not utilized.
It cannot be used to weld some non-ferrous metals.
High amperages (such as those used in applications) cannot be used.
automated and semi-automated), due to the long length (and its variation) between the

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 arc and the electric contact point in the electrode holder. The welding current
is limited by the resistance heating of the electrode and by the fact that the
the electrode temperature must not exceed that of the coating disintegration:
if this temperature is too high, the chemical agents of the coating
they react with each other or with the air and their protective capacity deteriorates.

Welding Variables
The main variables of the SMAW process are
Welding current (l)
Arc length (the)
Welding speed (S)
Electrode inclination*
(*) It is not considered a main variable; however, its effect is relevant and therefore it is included.

These variables determine the important characteristics of the deposited cord as follows:
penetration, geometric shape and others of metallurgical nature.

Welding current
Manual arc welding can be performed with direct current (DC) or with current
alternating current (AC). With direct current, the negative electrode connection can be used (DCEN)
direct polarity) or positive electrode (DCEP - reverse polarity). Whenever the use of the
appropriate electrode. The type of welding current, the polarity and the constituents of
The electrode coating affects the melting speed of the electrodes. For an electrode
Determined, the melting rate is directly related to electrical energy.
supplied to the arc. Part of this energy is used to melt a portion of the base metal, and
Another part is used to melt the electrode.

Each type of current has different advantages, but the selection of the type of current
The welding to be used depends on the availability of the equipment and the type of electrode.
selected. Direct current flows in one direction continuously through the
soldering circuit.

Direct current.- Direct current always produces a more stable arc and a
more uniform metal transfer than alternating current. This is because the
the polarity of the current is not changing all the time, as it happens with AC. The greater
part of the covered electrodes works better with reverse polarity (DCEP - electrode
positive), although some are suitable (and even designed) for direct polarity
(DCEN - negative electrode).

The polarity or direction of current flow is important when using current.

continue. The negative electrode (direct polarity) is often used when a
shallow penetration. The positive electrode is generally used where it is needed
a deep penetration. Normally, the negative electrode facilitates higher rates of
deposition that the positive electrode. The polarity to be used often depends on the type of
electrode.

The DC arc makes the welding puddle better wet the joint surfaces and
produce a welding bead of more uniform dimensions even with amperages
low. For that reason, direct current is ideal for welding thin sections.
most combined DC/AC electrodes work better with DC, despite being
designed to operate with either of the two types of current.

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Direct current is preferred for vertical welding and also for welding.
with short circuit. The DC arc is not as prone to short-circuiting when globules
molten metal is transported through it.

The magnetic arc blow can be a problem when welding magnetic metals with DC.
(iron and nickel). One way to solve this problem is to switch to AC.

Other advantages of direct current are:

The lighting of the bow is generally easier.

Maintaining a short bow is easier.
This generally produces fewer splashes in welding than the current.
alternatively.

Alternating Current.- AC is a combination of both polarities that alternate in cycles.

regular. In each cycle, the current starts at zero, reaches a maximum value at a
direction and decreases to zero the current direction changes every 120 times with the
60 Hertz current that is used in our country. The depth of penetration and the
deposition rates for alternating current are usually intermediate between those for
the DCEP(+) electrode and for the DCEN(-) electrode.

For the SMAW process, alternating current offers two advantages that direct current does not have:
One is the absence of the magnetic breath and the other is the cost of the power source.

Without a magnetic blow, it is possible to use larger electrodes and currents of

higher welding. Certain electrodes (those that have powdered iron in their
coverage) are designed to operate at higher amperages with AC. The speeds of
maximum welding with SMAW is achieved using the drag technique with these
electrodes and with alternating current. It is possible that the fastening materials, the design of the
fixations and the position of the workpiece connection are not so critical if using
AC.

An AC transformer costs less than an equivalent DC power supply, but

the team's thing should not be the only criterion for selecting the power source; it is
I need to consider all operational factors.

Current.- The coated electrodes of a specific size and classification can

operate satisfactorily at various amperages within a certain range. This
The interval varies a bit depending on the thickness and formulation of the coating.

The deposition speed increases with the amperage. For an electrode of a certain size, the
amperage intervals and the resulting deposition rates vary depending on the
electrode classification. For a specific size of electrodes, the amperage
Optimal depends on various factors such as the welding position and the type of joint. The
Current must be sufficient to achieve good fusion and penetration without losing the
control of the welding pool. When welding in a vertical position, it is most likely that the
optimal currents should be in the lower region of the permitted interval.

It is not advisable to use currents that exceed the recommended range, as the electrode
it can overheat and cause too much splashing, magnetic blow, bites and
cracking of the welding metal. Figures 2 A, B, and C show the effect of
current over the shape of the weld bead.

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Arc length
The arc length is the distance between the melted tip of the electrode core and the
surface of the soldering puddle. It is important to use an arc with the appropriate length.
to achieve a good quality weld. The transfer of metal from the tip of the
The electrode to the welding puddle is not a smooth and even action. The voltage
The instantaneous arc varies as droplets of molten metal are transferred through the arc, even
when the length of this is kept constant. However, variations in voltage
they will be minimal if welded with the correct amperage and arc length. For the latter
A constant and consistent electrode feed is required.

The correct arc length with the electrode classification, its diameter, and composition
its coverage varies with the amperage and the welding position. The length of the arc
increases as the diameter of the electrode and the amperage increase. As a general rule, the
the arc length must not exceed the diameter of the electrode core wire, although
It is usually even shorter in the case of electrodes with thick coating, such as those made of iron.
in powder or "drag".

If the arc is too short, it can be irregular and create a short circuit during the
metal transfer. On the other hand, if the arc is too long, it will lack direction and
intensity, and will tend to disperse the molten metal that travels from the electrode to the
welding. The spatter can be considerable, and the deposition efficiency is
it will reduce. Furthermore, the gas and the flux generated by the electrode coating will not be as
effective to protect the arc and the welding metal; this can cause porosity and
contamination of the welding metal with oxygen or hydrogen, or with both.

The control of the arc length is largely a matter of the welder's skill, and
it involves knowledge, experience, visual perception, and manual skill. Although the length
the arch varies within certain limits when changing conditions, there are some principles
fundamentals that can serve as a guide to determine the correct arc length
for a given set of conditions.

If it is welded in a flat position, especially if the electrode has a thick coating, the tip
the electrode can be gently dragged along the joint. In this case, the length
The arc will be automatically determined by the thickness of the coating and the speed.
of fusion electrode; moreover, it will be uniform. In vertical welding, the welder must
estimate the length of the arc. In these cases, the correct length will be the one that allows for
operator to control the size and movement of the weld pool.

In fillet welds, the arc must be introduced into the joint in order to achieve a
optimal penetration and deposition rate. The same applies to the root passes in the
groove welds in pipes.

If there is magnetic breath, the length of the arc should be reduced as much as possible. The
Various classifications of electrodes have very different operational characteristics.
including the arc length. Therefore, it is important for the welder to be familiar with
the operating characteristics of the types of electrodes it uses; this way you will know which one is the
correct arc length and what effects the different arc lengths have. In the figure
2 D and E show the effects of a short and long arc on the appearance of the stripe.
welding when using a mild steel electrode.

Welding speed
The travel or displacement speed is the rapidity with which the electrode moves
moves along the joint. The correct travel speed is the one that produces

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a weld bead with the correct profile and appearance, as shown in figure 2
A. There are several factors that determine what the correct speed should be:
Type of welding current, amperage, and polarity.
Welding position.
Electrode melting speed
(4) Thickness of the material.
Condition of the base metal surface.
Type of union
(7) Electrode manipulation.

When welding, the travel speed must be adjusted so that the arc goes a little
in front of welding. To a certain extent, an increase in travel speed reduces
the width of the weld bead and increases the penetration, higher from that point the
increase in travel speed can reduce penetration, cause deterioration of
the surface of the strip and produce bites on the edges of the weld, hindering the
removal of slag and trapping gas (porosity) in the welding metal. The effect of
a high travel speed is shown in figure 2 (G). If the travel speed is
low, the weld bead will be wide and convex, with little penetration, as illustrated in
figure 2 (F), The lack of penetration is due to the arc remaining in the puddle of
welding instead of getting ahead of it and focusing on the base metal. This, in turn,
it affects the dilution. If it is necessary to control the dilution (for example, when applying
coatings), it will be necessary to keep the travel speed low.
A B C D E F G

Figure 2 Influence of welding parameters on the shape of the bead

The speed of travel also influences the heat contribution, and therefore affects the
metallurgical structures of welding metal and the heat-affected zone. If the
the travel speed is low, the heat input increases and consequently the
width of the thermally affected zone, and the cooling rate of the
welding.

The forward travel speed necessarily decreases when a

woven strip "(with a zigzagging movement of the electrode), compared to the
speeds that can be achieved by applying a straight strip. An increase in speed of
route reduces the size of the area affected by heat and increases the speed of
welding cooling. The increase in the cooling rate can raise the

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mechanical resistance and the hardness of a weld in a hardenable steel, unless
heat up to a level that prevents hardening.

Figure 3 Electrode handling method

Electrode orientation
The electrode orientation with respect to the work and the weld groove is important.
for the quality of the welding. Incorrect orientation can cause entrapment of
slag, porosity, and biting. The proper orientation depends on the type and size of the
electrode, the welding position and the joint geometry. An experienced welder
Take all these factors into account automatically when determining the orientation it will use.
for a specific joint. The displacement angle and the working angle are used
to define the orientation of the electrode.

Figure 4 Frontal angle of electrode orientation

Figure 5 Electrode displacement angle

The displacement angle is the angle less than 90 degrees between the electrode axis and
a line perpendicular to the welding axis, in a plane defined by the electrode axis
and the welding axis. The working angle is the angle less than 90 degrees between a line
perpendicular to the main surface of the workpiece and a plane determined by the
electrode axis and the welding axis. If the electrode points towards the direction of
welding, the right technique is being used, and in that case the displacement angle
it is called thrust angle. In the back technique, the electrode points in the direction
opposite to that of welding, and the displacement angle is the drag angle. These
angles are shown in figure 5

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DEFECTS.

The defects commonly found in the welding process with electrodes

coated (SMAW), are the following:

Slag: It is defined as a non-metallic inclusion of irregular shape, which appears

located between the weld passes or beads. This type of defect is caused by
a poor cleaning of the previous one, whose solidified slag has not been removed in its
totality, or by an inadequate welding technique, which during the melting process
I got trapped underneath the deposited metal.

Pore: The pore manifests itself as a hollow portion, usually spherical in shape.
within the contributed metal, they are the result of the gases that remain trapped in
the interior of the welding metal. This type of defect can have different origins and its
Shape and distribution will depend on them. For example:

a) Porosity caused by the moisture of the electrode coating. The distinctive aspect
of this type of porosity, it begins with a considerable amount of pores in
the start of the arch decreases as the cord progresses until
totally disappear. This is because the electrode at the start of the arc is found
moist and then it dries as the electrode moves forward. (The heating
produced by the passage of electric current through the soul of the electrode, goes
drying and eliminating the moisture from the coating.

b) Nest of Pores. It is a cluster of confined pores (nest) in an area

determined. The main cause is; to be able to ignite the arc, the end of the
the electrode must necessarily have the tip stripped, that is, without the coating or in
in the best case a very thin layer. The few seconds during which the
The arc is on, transferring the molten metal from the tip of the electrode.
metal base, it is being performed without the appropriate gas protection (due to absence of the
coating) allowing the oxygen from the surrounding air to attack the molten metal
causing said nests of pores.

c) Isolated Pores. This type of pores is generally due to impurities present in the
surface of the bevels of the joint or in the electrode coating. They appear in
random shape in the deposited cord, and its size usually reaches 3 mm and sometimes
it can be larger. Unlike the previous two cases, the origin of these pores is
unpredictable, that is, difficult to prevent.

d) Vermicular pores. They are named this way due to their elongated and slightly...
curve that acquires the pore. This type of pore is mainly generated when
solder a base material that presents exfoliation, that is, when due to a defect
of the sheet or pipe rolling, the thickness of one of the edges of the joint is
divided into two parts in the longitudinal direction (it has a double layer). During the
welding operation, the heat expands the material and both layers separate, giving
place for the escape of the gases accumulated there, in its journey, the gas gets trapped in
the metal deposited during its solidification before reaching the surface, forming
this way a curved duct that gives rise to the name of the pore.

Sunk areas: It is a defect caused by the lack of filling of the bevel (welded by the arc)
electric), adjacent to the bead deposited during the welding operation. This type of
the defect is usually due to either excessive amperage use, inappropriate technique
welding or inadequate electrode diameter for the welding position that is being used
realizing.

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Lack of fusion: As its name indicates, it is an internal discontinuity between the
metal base and the deposited metal (it is also often present between the passes of
welding), where fusion or coalescence between them has not occurred. The causes of
a lack of fusion, is generally due to the use of excessively low amperages
for the electrode diameter used or inadequate operating technique. Also a bad
Cleaning of the joint can give rise to this type of defect.

Lack of penetration: It is a particular case of lack of fusion, which manifests itself in the
root of the joint. It can be defined as a welding imperfection evidenced in
the root, where the deposited metal did not manage to penetrate through the entire thickness of the joint. The
the main causes that give rise to this type of defect are; incorrect preparation of
the joint, inadequate electrode diameter, amperage used very low or excessive
welding speed.

Cracks: The appearance of this type of defect is generally not the responsibility of the
welder, so it's not an operational defect, but rather normally caused by some
metallurgical problem, or due to a binding of the joint that generates a state
unfavorable post-welding tensorial.

It is called a planar defect, just like a lack of fusion, because it is a defect.

bidimensional, that is to say, it has no thickness. The fractures can be; longitudinal to the axis of the
welding cord, transverse or having any other direction, can be internal or
external, straight or curved, large or small.

The most common causes of cracking in ferritic materials (carbon steels) are
lack of adequate preheating, associated or not with a very restricted joint, while
that in austenitic materials (stainless steels), an excessive thermal input is the
main cause of cracking.

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