1hereS-SI

Networks
Computer networks Course
Objective: name
Acquire the basics of the concept of computer networks
Prénom
Class :

Table of Contents
1 Introductionn .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2 The classification of computer networks
3 The different network topologies
4 The different components ..................................................................................................................... 7
5 Communication in a network ....................................................................................................... 11
6 The main network services............................................................................................................ 21

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1 Introduction
1.1 Definition
The word 'network' could be defined in one sentence:

A network is a group of entities in communication.

An entity can refer to a 'thing' among others. For example, a person in a group of people.
is an entity of this group. To stay with this example, we talk about a network when two or more people
speak together.

Yes, but don't forget that "talking together" also means "exchanging information"! ;)

So, basically, a network consists of the exchange of information, and there are (in everyday life) several ways
of information exchange, without involving technology (Internet, phone, etc.).

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For example, if someone wants to give you a book, they take the book and extend their hand to you, then you take the book.

What is interesting is that I can send (transfer) a book to André, through Pierre.
Hey Pierre, if you see André, pass him the book, and have him give it back to you when he has finished reading it.

What happens in this case is:

I give the book to Pierre

Pierre finds André and gives it to him.
3- André has finished, he returns the book to Pierre
Pierre comes to return the book.

We will assume in this case that André and I do not see each other, so Pierre is in this case a
intermediary. Indeed, the principle of intermediary is one of the foundations of computer networks.

A computer network is exactly the same as a human network, except that we need to replace the
humans by machines. It's as simple as that. In both cases, humans or machines exchange
they communicate!!!

The rest is just a list of rules that govern communication.

For example, where we mention spoken, written, body language or even language
signs in humans, we will mention the communication protocol for the
machines.

Regardless of the network considered, we will have at least:

• A transmitter,

• A receiver,

• A channel to convey the object of communication, the message.

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1.2 The 2 essential global networks
When we think of computer networks, we primarily think of the Internet. But to
Initially, to access the Internet, one would go through a telephone line. That is why,
In the category of computer networks, two main networks are distinguished:

➢ The Internet network

➢ The Telecom network

1.2.1 The Internet network

The Internet is the network that allows communication between different computers connected to the Internet.
When a computer is connected to this network, it is said to have access to the Internet. This network is sometimes confused with the
World Wide Web, while there is a big difference between these two concepts.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web, or Web for short, is the collection of sites
Web (commonly referred to as 'Internet sites') present on the Internet network.
The web, as is sometimes said in French, is therefore all the websites.
Web that we can visit through our web browser (Firefox, Opera, ...).

Internet
The Internet, on the other hand, is the set of nodes (connections, cables, etc.)
among the machines that give us access to the web. The internet is therefore the whole
networks that allow us to share data on the web (between
others, because there is not just the web on the Internet). So, when a person
she asks if you have Internet, she wants to know if your computer has access to
Internet. Moreover, it is still an abuse of language to say that one has
Internet: this gigantic network that belongs to no one, we can only have
internet access.

1.2.2 The Telecom network

Etymologically, the word telecommunication (abbreviated telecom) means
remote communication. The Telecom network aims to ensure the
long-distance communication, by the electrical transmission of voice
mainly.

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2 The classification of computer networks
There are networks suited to the nature of exchanges and connected devices. The distinction between the
networks are mainly classified based on their range:

2.1 The bus/field network

When the computer network is used in a given area, it is called a fieldbus or field network.
The technologies used for field networks can vary from computer networks. Generally speaking, one
use dedicated equipment for this purpose. We also use protocols that are less sensitive to disturbances.
outdoor.

These networks are generally used to interconnect sensors, actuators, and calculators or
industrial automations.

Examples: CAN bus, I2C bus, DMX 512 bus...

Bus CAN I2C Bus DMX 512

Electronic components

2.2 The local network (LAN)

A local area network, often referred to by the English acronym LAN for Local Area Network, is a computer network.
such as the terminals participating in it (computers, etc.) send frames to each other at the link layer level without
use internet access. At the level of IP addressing, a local network generally corresponds to an IP subnet.
The local networks are interconnected using routers (same IP address prefix).

Another approach is to define the local network by its physical size. It is generally a network of one
relatively small geographical scale, for example a computer room, a particular dwelling, a
building or a business site.

2.3 The metropolitan network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (in English Metropolitan Area Network, MAN) refers to a network composed of computers.
typically used in campuses or in cities. The network usually uses fiber optics.

2.4 The Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network, often referred to by its English acronym WAN (Wide Area Network), is a network
computer science or a telecommunications network covering a large geographical area, typically at the scale
of a country, a continent, or the entire planet. The largest WAN is the Internet.

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3 The different network topologies
A computer network topology corresponds to the architecture (physical or logical) of it, defining the
links between network equipment and a possible hierarchy among them.

It can define how the equipment is interconnected and the spatial representation of the network.
(physical topology). It can also define how data transits across communication lines.
(logical topology).

3.1 The ring network

A network has a ring topology when all its stations are connected in a
link them together by a colon connection from the last to the first. Each
station serves as an intermediate station. Each station that receives a frame,
The interpreter and re-transmits it at the next station in the loop if necessary. The failure
a host breaks the structure of a ring network if communication is
unidirectional.

3.2 The bus network

all the posts are directly connected to a single segment (limited by the length
the cable). The failure of a node (computer) does not split the network into two sub-
networks. These units are connected passively by electrical or optical derivation.

3.3 The star network

Also called Hub and Spoke, it is currently the most common topology.
Ubiquitous, it is also very flexible in terms of network management and troubleshooting.
a node failure does not disrupt the overall functioning of the network. On the other hand,
the central equipment that connects all the nodes constitutes a single point of failure: a
A failure at this level renders the network completely unusable. The Ethernet network is an example.
of star topology. The main disadvantage of this topology lies in the length
the cables used.

3.4 The mesh network

A mesh topology corresponds to several point-to-point connections. (A network unit
can have (1,N) point-to-point connections to several other units.) Each terminal
is connected to all the others. The downside is the number of necessary connections that becomes
very high when the number of terminals is.

This topology is found in large distribution networks (Example:

Internet). Information can travel across the network taking various routes, under the
control of powerful network supervisors, or through routing methods
distributed.
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The different components
4.1 The terminals
The main function of terminal equipment is to allow the user to access resources.
network. The family of terminals includes computers (often called workstations), servers, and all of the
devices such as printers, sensors, or actuators that can be connected to a network.

4.1.1 The network card

To be able to operate in a network, all terminals must have a network interface card. Some
Terminals come with a network card already installed. It is through it that all data to be sent passes.
and to receive from the network in a computer.

It has a physical address (MAC address). A second IP address is assigned to it and allows for
freeing oneself from the physical address. One can therefore change the network card (in case of failure) and thus the physical address
without changing the IP address.
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4.2 The concentrators (or hub)
A hub is a networking device that allows several computers to connect.
in contact.

The term multiport repeater is sometimes used, as it transfers, or

repeats all the packets it receives on one port to all its other ports

The Hub does not have internal memory and broadcasts collisions; the more there are
the more equipment, the more collisions there are and the greater the load is. For
for longer distances, we use switches.

4.3 Switches
A switch works much like a hub, except that it is more discreet and intelligent. It does not send everything
what he receives from everyone, but he sends it only to the recipient.

In order to determine the computer to which the data should be sent back, the switch relies on physical addresses.
(MAC addresses) of the network cards of the terminals.

The transmissions are more confidential, the others are not.

They know nothing of the data not intended for them.

4.4 Routers
A router looks like a switch in terms of usage: indeed, it allows several computers to be connected.
in network. But it goes further: it enables the connection of 2 fundamentally different networks. In a
small installation, with one or more computers connected to a 'box' (which is actually a router), it is the boundary
between the local network and the Internet.

A router has several interfaces. To continue in our

Example of a boundary with the Internet, it has a connected interface.
to the Internet (generally this means a cable connected to the
telephone socket) and several other interfaces on which it
connecting computers wanting to access the Internet (which translates
usually via Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi connections.

4.5 The tutors

A repeater acts somewhat like a hub, but it only has 2 interfaces. Its purpose is
to send back what it receives through the receiving interface on the emitting interface, but louder. It is said to regenerate.
and re-emits the signal.

In wireless transmission (radio, telephone), we also talk about relays. A repeater allows covering distances.
greater than the maximum distances set by the equipment we use: for example, in a wireless network
(Wi-Fi), the maximum range between 2 devices is about 50 meters indoors. By placing a repeater just before
At 50 meters, you can connect 2 devices at a distance of 100 meters. The fact that the information is
Re-sent "stronger" can degrade the quality of the signal in wireless networks.

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4.6 Transmission media
Transmission physical media can be very heterogeneous, both in terms of transfer of
data (data transmission in the form of electrical impulses, in the form of light or in the form
of electromagnetic waves) in terms of the type of medium (twisted pairs, coaxial cable, optical fiber, waves
radio, ...).

The choice of the medium depends on interdependent criteria among which are: the maximum distance between stations,
the minimum and maximum rates
exchanged (data, voice, video ...), connectivity, reliability, cost ...

4.6.1 The Ethernet cable

The Ethernet cable (twisted pair) is surely the most used type of cable to connect computers.
between them in a local network. Unless your network is entirely wireless, you probably have some at home.
It typically connects a personal computer to a router (sometimes referred to as a 'box'). The name
The "scientific" (if we can call it that) name of the Ethernet cable is "UTP-CAT5 (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
"Category 5)" or "UTP-CAT6 cable (Unshielded Twisted Pair Category 6)". The difference between the two categories? Everything.
simply the speed: CAT5 allows a speed of 100 megabits per second while CAT6 supports gigabit per
second.

There are two types of Ethernet cables (twisted pair): straight-through Ethernet cables and crossover Ethernet cables.
These allow for a direct connection between two similar devices (e.g., two computers or two ...
switches) while straight cables are used to connect two different devices (e.g. a computer to another device
like a hub or a switch).

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4.6.2 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a networking technology
wireless personnel, that is to say a technology of
short-range wireless networks allowing for connection
devices with each other without wired connection.

Unlike IrDa technology (link

infrared), Bluetooth devices do not require
a direct line of sight to communicate, which
makes its use more flexible and particularly allows
a communication from one room to another, on
small spaces.

There are 3 classes in Bluetooth: class 1, class 2, and class 3. What differentiates them is just the range. In class 1, the
the range can reach up to 100 meters, in category 2, it is about ten meters, and in class 3, it is
only a few meters (less than 10). It is this 3rd class that is used in mobile phones.

4.6.3 The infrared

Infrared is another means of wireless data transmission that exploits

the light. It is less practical than Bluetooth because the devices must
communicate with each other should be no less than 1.50m apart. They must also be
aligned: light does not propagate in the surroundings like radio waves.
In the past, many phones used infrared, but it quickly became
replace with Bluetooth, although some devices use both. There is
still currently wireless printers, mice, keyboards using infrared.

4.6.4 The Wifi

Wi-Fi is certainly the most widely used wireless data transmission method. Its range can exceed
the 200 meters in open space and its theoretical flow speed of over 100 megabits per second (Mbps) have
allows a democratization of this technology which is now widely used in local networks for access
to the Internet. It is impressive to see the number of secure and unsecured Wi-Fi hotspots that can be captured.
everywhere. 'Wi-Fi' can be considered as the trade name for the IEEE 802.11 standard, a standard that governs this
technology.
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5 Communication in a network
All connected devices share the same transmission medium and must therefore ...
respect rules called protocols, governing the use of this support.

5.1 The protocols

A communication protocol is a set of rules and procedures that defines a type of
particular communication. The protocols are hierarchically organized in layers to decompose and order the different
tasks. There are several families of protocols or models, each model being a suite of protocols between
various layers. Among these models, we find the OSI model and the TCP/IP model.

5.2 The OSI model

the OSI modelOpen Systems Interconnection: 'interconnection of open systems'was developed at
normative vocation, that is to say, to serve as a reference in the course of communication between two.
hosts.
The OSI model is a standardized way to break down the communication process into several blocks.
two entities. Each block resulting from this segmentation is called a layer. A layer is a set of services
achieving a specific goal. The beauty of this segmentation is that each layer of the OSI model communicates
with the layer above and below it (also referred to as adjacent layers). The layer below
provides services that the current layer uses, and the current layer provides services that the layer below
above her will need to fulfill her role. Here is a diagram to illustrate this principle of communication between
sofas

Thus, the OSI model allows for a detailed understanding of how communication occurs between a
computer A and computer B. Indeed, a lot is happening behind the scenes between the moment t, where you
you sent an email (for example), and the moment t1, when the recipient receives it.
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Example:

To understand the OSI model, we will invent a scenario. Pierre is keeping

a letter in his office. He wants to give it to the postman, who is waiting in front of the gate.
from his beautiful villa. The letter is addressed to Jacques, but Pierre is not allowed to enter.
in Jacques's office. Jacques is also not allowed to leave his office.
Only the postman can enter Jacques' office to deliver the letter, but he
He is forbidden to go to Pierre's to look for her.

Pierre's house is poorly built: there is no hallway, just a

vertical alignment of pieces separated by a door. To go from the office to
doorway, Pierre must cross the living room and the garden.

In the diagram opposite, each room of the house can be considered

like a layer. Pierre must leave the highest layer to head towards
the lowest (the gate). Once the letter is handed to the postman, he will have to make
the opposite at Jacques, that is to say leaving the lowest layer to go towards the
highest layer (Jacques' office).

Each room in the house has a specific function. The office is

generally reserved for work; the living room, for relaxation (discussions, television,
The garden, for its part, offers us its beauty and pure air. As for the gate, it allows
to access both the garden and the house.

The OSI model segmented communication into seven layers:

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5.2.1 The different layers of the OSI model
Position
Name of the
in the Role of the layer
layer
OSI model
7 Application Point of contact with network services.

She takes care of all aspects related to data presentation: format, encryption,
6 Presentation
encoding, etc.

5 Session Responsible for the initialization of the session, its management, and its closure.

Choice of transmission protocol and preparation of data transmission (TCP or

UDP for example). It specifies the port number used by the sending application
4 Transport
as well as the port number of the receiving application. It fragments the data.
in several sequences (or segments).

Logical connection between hosts (IP address). It deals with everything related to
3 Network
the identification and routing in the network.

Liaison of Establishment of a physical link between hosts (MAC address). Fragment the
2
data data in multiple frames.

1 Physics Conversion of frames into bits and physical transmission of data over the medium.

5.2.2 Transmission/Reception Process

When a host A sends a message to a host B, the sending process goes from layer 7 (application) to the layer
1 (physical). On the other hand, when it comes to receiving, the message takes the opposite path: it starts from layer 1.
(physical) to reach layer 7 (application).

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5.3 The encapsulation
During a transmission, the data pass through each layer at the transmitting machine. At each
Layer, information is added to the data packet, it is a header, a set of information that ensures
the transmission. At the level of the receiving machine, as it passes through each layer, the header is read, then
deleted. Thus, upon receipt, the message is in its original state.

At each level, the data packet changes appearance, as a header is added to it, thus the names
changing according to the layers:

➢ The data packet is called a message at the application layer.

➢ the message is then encapsulated in the form of a segment in the transport layer
➢ the segment once encapsulated is called a packet in the network layer
➢ Finally, we talk about frames at the link layer level.
➢ and signal at the physical layer

Each layer of the OSI model has a specific function. This correlation clearly indicates that some
Information can be found from one layer to another. This is only possible through the principle of encapsulation.

The data is wrapped at each layer and carries the

name of PDU (Protocol Data Unit) and contain two things: the
data in itself called SDU (Service Data Unit) and the
specific header for this layer. The 'data' part of this packet
is composed of the initial data, but also of the headers of
couches that precede it.

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5.4 The TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP model has a descriptive purpose, meaning that it
describe how communication takes place between two hosts.
In other words, if you want to understand how to
roll out the communication "on the ground", take the model
TCP/IP.

the TCP/IP model consists of only four layers. This

are layers of abstraction, in other words, layers that
hiding the details of the implementation of communication and their
Names do not reflect word for word the functions they perform.
The first three layers of the OSI model correspond to the
application layer of the TCP/IP model.

The TCP/IP model is therefore the model used for the Internet.

The name of the TCP/IP model is closely related to two

protocols: the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the
IP protocol (Internet Protocol). This is partly due to the fact that
are the two most widely used protocols for the Internet.

Position in
Name of the
the model Role of the layer
layer
TCP/IP
The application layer is the layer located at the top of the protocol layers.
4 Application TCP/IP. This includes network applications that enable communication.
thanks to the lower layers.

The protocols of the previous layers allowed for the sending of information
from one machine to another. The transport layer allows applications running
on remote machines to communicate. The problem involves identifying these
applications.
The transport layer contains two protocols that allow two applications
3 Transport
to exchange data regardless of the type of network used
independently of the lower layers...), these are the following protocols:
➢ TCP, a connection-oriented protocol that ensures error control
➢ UDP, a connectionless protocol whose error control is
archaic

The Internet layer is the 'most important' layer (they all have their
2 Internet importance) because it defines the datagrams and manages the concepts
of IP addressing.

The network interface layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack, it provides the
Interface
1 capabilities to access any physical network, that is to say the means to
network
implement in order to transmit data over a network.

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5.4.1 The IP protocol
IP stands for Internet Protocol: literally 'the protocol of the Internet.' It is the main protocol used on the Internet.

Let's draw a parallel with the post.

When you want to send a letter by mail:

➢ you place your letter in an envelope,

➢ on the front you write the recipient's address,
➢ on the back, you write the sender's address (yours).

On the Internet, it's pretty much the same thing: each message (each little packet of data) is wrapped up
by IP that adds different information:

➢ the address of the sender (your IP address),

➢ the recipient's IP address,
➢ additional data (that allows for proper tracking of the message delivery).

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5.4.2 The UDP and TCP protocols
The main protocols used by the transport layer of the TCP/IP model are UDP and TCP.

[Link] The UDP protocol

UDP is a 'connectionless' oriented protocol.

To keep it simple, when machine A sends packets to machine B, this flow is

unidirectional. Indeed, the transmission of data occurs without notifying the recipient (machine B), and the
the recipient receives the data without acknowledging receipt to the sender (machine A). This is due to the fact
that the encapsulation of data sent via the UDP protocol does not allow for the transmission of information
concerning the sender. As a result, the recipient does not know the sender of the data other than their IP.

[Link] The TCP protocol

Unlike UDP, TCP is connection-oriented. When machine A sends data to a
machine B, machine B is notified of the arrival of data, and acknowledges the proper receipt of this data
by an acknowledgment of receipt. Here, the CRC check of the data comes into play. This is based on an equation
mathematics, allowing to verify the integrity of the transmitted data. Thus, if the received data is
corrupted, the TCP protocol allows recipients to request the sender to resend the data
corrupted.

For example, to send the message 'Hi, how are you?', here's what TCP does (Each arrow represents
1 packet IP):

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5.5 Addressing
To communicate, you must know who you want to address!

It's time to talk about identification and communication in a network. We will address 2 concepts: it
it concerns IP addresses and MAC addresses.

The primary difference between IP addresses and MAC addresses is that IP addresses are routable. They
can communicate with machines beyond a subnet, unlike MAC addresses. The element
The central (switch, ...) is based on MAC addresses to ensure communication between multiple machines.
belonging to the same subnet, but uses IP addresses to enable communication between machines in the subnet.
different networks.

5.5.1 MAC addresses

A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to each network card. It is a physical address.
Specifically, it is an identification number composed of 12 hexadecimal digits. By convention, a
colon symbol (:) every 2 digits. A MAC address looks like this: 01:23:45:67:89:AB.

5.5.2 IP addresses
An IP address is "nothing more" than the place where a computer lives. But be careful: this address is relative.
On the network. A machine may not necessarily have the same IP address on network X and network Y.

IP addresses are the only means of identifying machines on the Internet. But there are 2 versions of the protocol.
Internet (the "way" to access the Internet in a way): IPv4 and IPv6. And each version uses its own structure.
IP address.

An 'IPv4 address' consists of 4 numbers corresponding to 4 octets ranging from 0 to 255, separated by
points. Nowadays, these are the most well-known.

Example: [Link].

IPv6 addresses are even more complex: they are represented by a series of 8 groups of 2 bytes.
represented in hexadecimal.

Example: 1fff:0000:0a88:85a3:0000:0000:ac1f:8001.

[Link] The structure of IPv4 addresses

IP addresses are 32-bit numbers that contain 2 fields:

➢ A network identifier (NET-ID): all systems on the same physical network must have it
same network identifier, which must be unique across all managed networks.

➢ A host identifier (HOST-ID): a node on a TCP/IP network is called a host, it identifies a station.
work, a server, a router or any other TCP/IP device within the network.

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[Link] The IPV4 address classes
A network class is, in fact, a set of IP addresses. Each IP address belongs to a main class.
(it is also called a subnet). Each class has a default subnet mask. Whether you like it or not, as soon as
you give your network card an IP address, your operating system directly assigns it a mask of
default subnet according to the class to which your IP address belongs.

By convention, the creators of the IP protocol say that there are 5 classes of IP addresses. In other words, one can
choose our IP address from these five classes. These classes are: A, B, C, D, and E. The most used classes are the
classes A, B, and C.

The first octet of an IP address determines the class of that address.

Example: Let the following IP address be: [Link]

142 in decimal = 10001110 in binary

The binary word starts with the bits 10, so it is a class B address.

Regarding a class B address, the first two octets (a and b) identify the network. The network number
is therefore: [Link]

The last two octets (c and d) identify the host device on the network.

Finally, this address refers to equipment number 149.4 on network 142.62.

[Link] Subnet masks

The role of the netmask is to precisely identify the bits that pertain to the network number of a
address (it "masks" the host part of the address).

A bit set to 1 in the mask indicates that the corresponding bit in the IP address is part of the network number; conversely,
A bit at 0 specifies a bit used to code the host number.
Thus, we have a so-called 'default' mask that corresponds to the class of this network.

Example: in a class A network without subnetting, the first octet corresponds to the network address so the
The netmask starts with 11111111 followed by zeros, which is [Link].

Hence the following table:

Class A B C
Subnet mask [Link] [Link] [Link]

Example: If my IP address is [Link] then I am working with a class B address. My network number is
[Link] and my mask [Link].

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[Link] Reserved addresses
Reserved addresses cannot designate a TCP/IP machine on a network.

The loopback address: the network address 127 is not assigned to a company, it is used as
loopback address in all networks. This address is used to test the operation of your network card. A
Ping [Link] should return a correct message. The packet sent to this address returns to the sender.

The network address is an address where all the host bits are set to 0 (e.g., [Link] network address).
of the class B network 128.10). It is used to refer to all the stations of the network. This address is used in
the routing tables

The broadcast address is an address where all the host bits are set to 1 (e.g.:
[Link] is the broadcast address of network 128 of class B). It is used to send a message to everyone.
network posts.

Private addresses

The following addresses can also be freely used to set up a private network:
From [Link] to [Link], from [Link] to [Link] and from [Link] to [Link]

No packets from or to these networks will be routed on the Internet (these addresses
are nonetheless 'routable' on the local network).

[Link] Data transmission

In a computer network, there are several means
to send data.

➢ Unicast: in this case, data is sent to

one computer;

➢ Multicast: the transmission of data is done to a

computer group;

➢ Broadcast: we send data to everyone

network computers.

What you need to know is that the address 255 in Class C networks is a network broadcast address. In
In short, if you send data to this address, the data will be sent to all the computers on the network!
the same thing for the addresses of classes A and B. For example, the address 255.255.255 of network 110 (for class
A) is a broadcast address, as well as the address 255.255 of the network 140.20 (for class B).

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6 The main network services
We have seen that the Internet relies on the TCP/IP protocol. There are many other protocols in use on
this network, in particular, the main services offered by the Internet which are the web, email (e-mail)
Forums, chat, and FTP each use a different protocol.

For example, we find the services listed below, but there are plenty of others.

6.1 Domain Names (DNS)

The name assigned to a piece of equipment allows it to be identified more easily by a user. For example,
[Link] is more meaningful than [Link]. A name can thus be associated with any interface.
network. It is defined by the domain administrator in which it is located.
This service has become widespread on the internet. The DNS is a hierarchical system comparable to the organization of
directories. There are no files or services grouping all of them as in the previous mechanism.
information but a set of name servers.
The areas at the top of the structure are divided into two categories, the geographical one (fr, us, jp ...) and the one
referencing the type of organizations: com for commercial entities, edu for education, org...

6.2 The visualization of web page (HTTP)

The most well-known, the most recent, and now the most used hyperdocument consultation service. It is THE
Internet service. It is this service that made it attractive and 'commercially useful'.

A hyperdocument is an electronic document containing images, sound, text, and sometimes small...
pieces of programs, but mostly links to other hyperdocuments: hypertext links. These links
appear in a style that distinguishes them, and a simple mouse action on a link is enough to open the document
linked. Documents can be found on any machine (server) on the Internet in sometimes very
distant and it is what gives the user the impression of navigating the network.

It relies on the HTTP protocol, which is at the beginning of the address of the server you connect to access.
to a web page

6.3 Electronic Mail (SMTP and POP)

Email (e-mail or mail) is using the Internet as one uses the post. It is possible
to leave a message in the mailbox of the correspondent, whether he is in front of a machine or not. This
the last will be able, at its next connection, to check its mailbox to read or send messages to
their correspondents.

Messages are sent and received using two protocols (SMTP and POP), but they can also pass through the
Web.

File Transfer (FTP)

FTP, File Transfer Protocol, is a file transfer protocol. This transfer is carried out by establishing
a connection between an FTP server and an FTP client located on your computer. The exchanged files are files
computer data of all types (text, images, sounds, software, ...)

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