7

1. INTRODUCTION

Forging is a mechanical shaping process that results in a change

permanent in the final dimensions and in the metallurgical characteristics of a part,
so that it tends to assume the shape or profile of the tool (Metal
Mundi, 2010).

Currently, there is a variety of machinery capable of producing pieces of the most varied types.

shapes and sizes, from pins, nails, screws, and nuts to turbine rotors
the wings of the airplane (Engemec, 2010).

Most forging operations are carried out hot; however, a large

variety of small parts, such as screws, pins, nuts, gears,
pulleys are produced by cold forging (Engemec, 2010).

In the economy in 2004, the national production of castings and forgings was 162.4 thousand.

tons, while consumption was 135.9 thousand tons. However, in the composition
of these numbers, most belong to the castings (Aluminum magazine, 2008).

With the aim of showing the reader this process widely used in shaping
metals, however little disseminated, an effort was made to prepare a simple and accessible work

however, according to the current technical standards of ABNT (NBR 6023).

 8

2. FORGING - DEFINITION AND HISTORY

Forging is the mechanical forming process by which themetalis heated and

shaped by plastic deformation with the appropriate application of compressive force.
The forging method precedes the welding process. To forge a certain type
The material refines the grain structure and improves the physical properties of the metal.
Materials with forging signs are more consistent, showing no porosity,
cracks and other defects. Also the coating operations, such as
Metalization or painting are simple due to a good surface, which requires a lot.
little preparation. Forged metals have a high strength-to-weight ratio and
pressure. (Maintenance and supplies, 2010)

Forging, usually done hot, is responsible for the production of large

part of the elements and mechanical components. The combination of suitable shapes
with excellent properties obtained through this process has ensured its
permanence among the most employed, which is why they are jobs, frequently, in the
design of aircraft components. Furthermore, for large-sized parts,
only forging allows the attainment of the required shapes and properties, and with
a minimal loss of material, thus offering a lower manufacturing cost.

It is believed that the oldest forgeries began in Egypt and Asia due to
around 4000 BC or possibly even earlier. Cast iron and bronze were
forged by these ancient men to produce hand tools,
rough instruments and weapons, such as knives, daggers, and spears. The replacement of the arm
The blacksmithing occurred in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution. Nowadays there are

various forging equipment for the production of the most diverse parts
geometries (Worldlingo, 2010).
 9

The metal is always stronger in the direction of its grain structure. Forging
it allows the granules to be aligned in the direction of the instrument. The cut of the
the machining of the instrument usually advances against the grain, and in this way

weakens the instrument. Furthermore, since the forging is created by pressure

and not by machining, much less material is wasted in the process. Based on these
Advantages, forged instruments are generally stronger than machined instruments.

The disadvantage of forging is that the high temperatures required in the process
can provoke rapid oxidation, which produces an unsatisfactory finish and
scales on the surface. Due to this scaling, the maintenance of small
tolerances can sometimes be difficult.

When metal parts are forged, the aim is mainly to change the
properties of elasticity and plasticity of metal.

Elasticity

Elasticity is the property that the metallic material has to deform when a force is applied.
is applied to it, and returns to the previous shape when the applied effort stops
to exist.

Plasticity

Plasticity is the property that the metallic material has to maintain a certain
deformation, if a force is applied to it, and remains deformed when the
effort to stop existing. Normally this effort applied to the metal is greater and more
longer than in the previous description.

These properties depend on how the metal atoms are arranged, where
structural situations allow for greater or lesser deformations, requiring more or
less energy and effort to deform a metallic material.

In general, all conformable materials can be forged. The most

used for the production of forged parts are:
• Steels (common and alloyed, structural steels, steels for carburizing and for

processing, ferritic and austenitic stainless steels, tool steels

 10

3. INFLUENCES OF TEMPERATURE ON FORGING

The fixation of temperature is variable, being a dependency on the type of material that is
wants to forge. In general, its limits are set by excessive strength increase.
when the temperature is very low (lower limit) and by oxidation at temperatures
but higher (upper limit). However, a detailed knowledge of
behavior of the material with which one is working, that is, to know the stress
of drainage, the losses due to oxidation, the elongation and the transformation zones
of phase as a function of temperature. All these parameters must be known.
to avoid defects and optimize the process.

The effect of temperature distribution, strain rate, instrument geometry

Friction is a critical aspect of the overall forging process. Both the
finishing temperature maintained during forging as the shape of
cooling has an effect on the product. The rapid cooling of a product that
being at a high temperature will result in excessive hardness of the product, increasing
in this way the internal tensions. It is recommended that a treatment be employed
of annealing before machining the forged part. Annealing consists of
heating of the piece followed by a slow cooling in an annealing furnace
to soften the instrument.
 11

4. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURE

All the information below was taken from [Link]

[Link]

4.1. Cold forging

Cold forging is a plastic deformation of metals, without heating, where the

material is forced by compression, to flow between a matrix and a punch, resulting in the
acquisition of parts with shape and precision tolerances.

It is a method used to move without removing the metal. This technology has already proven to be

highly economical. Its applications are growing rapidly and its potential and
development for parts with more complex geometric shapes, manufactured with
raw materials that allow a greater degree of deformation.

Cold work is accompanied by the hardening of the metal, which is caused by

interaction of disagreements among themselves and with other barriers - such as contours of
grain - that prevents its movement through the crystal lattice. Plastic deformation
also leads to an increase in the number of disagreements, which, due to their
interaction results in a high state of internal tension in the crystal lattice. All this
results macroscopically in an increase in resistance and hardness and a decrease in
ductility of the material.

Due to being in low temperatures, the strain stress of the material is high and,
therefore demands high pressures from the machines and, consequently, requires
large or medium-sized forges. The advantage found over hot forging
is that after the process the piece is already in its finished dimensions, for it is not
suffered dilations due to the increase in temperature.

All materials that exhibit ductility at room temperature can be

cold deformed. Essentially, the cold process starts to have advantages
economic, depending on the volume of the material and how much the forged piece is
approximate in geometries of the finished piece.
 12

Warm working consists of shaping parts within a temperature range.

where the recovery process occurs, therefore, the degree of hardening by
deformation is considerably less than in cold work.

There is a temperature range used in warm forming of steels, between

500 and 800° C. The lower forming temperature is limited to approximately
500°C due to the possibility of occurrence of "blue brittleness" at higher temperatures.
drops.

This weakening increases the yield stress and decreases ductility. It occurs
at temperatures around 200 to 400°C where interstitial atoms diffuse
during the deformation forming atmospheres around the generated discrepancies,
anchoring them. The blue name refers to the coloration of the oxide formed on the surface of

steel in this temperature range.

In relation to hot work, the warm process provides a better finish.

superficial and dimensional precision due to the reduction of oxidation and expansion -
contraction of the material and the matrix.

The biggest disadvantage of warm forming compared to hot processing is the

increase in the outflow limit that occurs with the decrease in temperature of
deformation. The increase in the shaping load will imply the need
to use more powerful presses and more durable tools. The ingots for
the shaping, in turn, may require stripping for removal of scale and
use of lubricants during the process. Regarding the cold work process
the morning presents a reduction in deformation efforts, which allows for conforming
easier to make parts with complex shapes, especially in materials with high
Resilience. Warm forming improves the ductility of the material and eliminates the
need for intermediate annealing that consumes a lot of energy and time.

4.3. Hot forging

The hot forging process is distinguished from the warm forging process by the range of
temperature at which it is performed, that is, temperature range in which they occur
the mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization.
 13

hot. The gas bubbles and porosities are eliminated by heating them
cavities and the columnar structure of the coarse grains in the cast piece is broken and
refined in equiaxed recrystallized grains of smaller size.

The structural variations due to hot work provide an increase in

ductility and toughness, compared to the molten state. Generally, the structure and
properties of metals worked at hot are not so uniform along the
straight section like in cold worked and annealed metals, since the deformation is
ever larger in the surface layers. The metal will have recrystallized grains of
smaller size in this region. As the inside of the product will be subjected to
higher temperatures for a longer period during the cooling of
that external surfaces can experience grain growth inside parts
large dimensions, which cool slowly from the temperature of
work.

Most hot work operations are carried out in multiple passes or

stages; in general, in the intermediate passes the temperature is kept well above the
lower limit of hot work to take advantage of the reduction in stress
drainage, although with the risk of grain growth. However, as desired
usually a product with a small grain size, the temperature of the last
passes (finishing temperature) is very close to the lower limit and the quantity
the deformation is relatively large. Small grain sizes will give rise to
parts with better strength and toughness.

To obtain forged parts with good quality, the process needs to be completed at
a defined temperature for each type of material. This becomes apparent if the forging is
carried out at temperatures below those established, according to table 01, as the material
It can become hardened and the piece subject to cracking. The hardening can be eliminated.
for firing, but the cracks do not.

Table 01 - Hot forming temperature range of the most common materials

Material Temperature (°C)

Aluminum Alloys 320 - 520

Copper Alloys (brass) 650 - 850
Low carbon steel 900 - 1150
Medium Steel carbon content C 850 - 1100
High carbon steel 800 - 1050
 14

In hot forming, care must be taken with temperature drops,

not allowing to exceed the lower limit of the table.

This drop in temperature can occur due to the cooling of the part in contact.
with the air (radiation) and the transfer of heat from the piece to the cold tool. Given that
the factors that influence heat transfer are contact time tool piece and
the surface of the piece.

During the shaping process, there is also a heating of the piece due to the energy of
deformation, however less important than the aforementioned losses only
in cases of high-alloy steels, subjected to high deformation, it is possible that this
heating overrides cooling.
 15

5. THERMAL TREATMENTS

Depending on the application of a forged part, its mechanical properties may

be improved by a heat treatment, before or after the operation of
forging.

•Preheating: It is done to prevent fracture or distortion of the material. This is done

placing the material in a series of furnaces that will increase
gradually the temperature of this material.

•Annealing: This process must precede forging so that the material

make it less brittle, or more malleable and ductile, and also reduce the stresses
internal. This treatment is done by heating the steel above the critical zone and letting it
cool slowly.

Normalization: It is done to improve the crystalline structure of steel, thus obtaining

better mechanical properties. It is made by heating the material above the zone
critical and leaving it to cool in the air. This allows for a refinement in the grain size.

•Hardening: Can be carried out after the forging process, by a

tempering treatment, slowly heating the material to the critical zone,
to achieve a uniform transformation in the structure of the steel, and then cooling-
or quickly in a tank with water or oil.
 16

6. OPEN MATRICES AND CLOSED MATRICES

Molds are pieces, usually made of tool steel, that come into contact with the
metal during forging. The operation in question is commonly classified into
forging in open dies and in closed dies; in the case of forging in
open matrices, the restriction on the lateral movement of the compressed metal is
small, and the matrices have quite simple geometry (Fundamentals of
mechanical conformation of metals, 1993.

6.1. Open matrices

In the forging we perform in open matrices, the matrices usually have

basic and very simple geometry formats. One part of the matrix is stuck in the part
the top part of the forging hammer and the other part of the die remains fixed at the bottom of the

equipment, with no other part on the sides of the piece that may
restrict or prevent deformation, leaving this space free for deformation of the
metal. In open die forging, the strike is applied, the piece is turned 90º and returned.
if it hits, when possible and the process is by hammering, when it is by
pressing the deformation occurs in a single squeeze. They are used for production of
large parts and in small productive batches.

Free molding is suitable for the production of parts of various sizes, that
they must receive simple and smooth shapes with flat or uniformly surfaces
round. For forging heavy pieces of a size on the order of 100
tonnes in free molding is the only manufacturing possibility.
Free forging can be carried out with the aid of muscular force, when it is then
referred to as manual free forging, or with the aid of presses or machines of
forging, in this case, is called free forging by machine. Both in a
situation as another, the shape of the piece, as well as its dimensions are obtained
by the skill of the blacksmith in manipulating machines and tools being,
therefore, an operation to be carried out by a specialized professional.

In situations where the pieces are no longer so small, or even when one wishes to
larger production the free forging can be done with machines, in this case the
the only change is that the force for deformation is no longer muscular, it is produced
by a machine, but all control of shape, dimension, and deformation is taken to
 17

Figure 2 - Schematic drawing of free forging

Source: Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy of PUC Rio

[Link]/download/MET 1836 - [Link] on May 13, 2010

6.2. Closed matrices

In closed die forging, a part of the die is trapped on the top.

the forging hammer and the other part remains fixed at the bottom of the equipment, but
In this case, the matrix closes completely when forging occurs, enclosing
completely the metal that will be forged and the metal acquires the shape that was sculpted in the

matrix, that is, it receives effort and deforms in all directions, including in
sides, different from the previous process.

In this type of forging, a predetermined area is left in the mold to receive

the excess material that is displaced to an extra cavity in the matrix and
subsequently removed, this excess material is called burr.

This type of forging places much more demand on the molds, because forces are applied,
about them, in all directions. Due to these working conditions it is
It is necessary for these matrices to exhibit high hardness, high toughness, and resistance.
to fatigue, high mechanical resistance to heat and high wear resistance. This type of
matrix is much more expensive than the previous one.

Generally, in die forging, the billet is first rough machined and squared to
 18

Normally, the rough forging cavity and the finishing cavity are machined.
in the same matrix block. Often, thinning and expansion of the
metal at the ends of the matrix block.

The starting material is usually cast or, more commonly, rolled - condition
this one is preferable, as it presents a more homogeneous microstructure. Parts
forged in matrix, with a weight not exceeding 2 or 3 kg, are normally produced at
made from rolled bars; those of greater weight are forged from billets or
strip logs, almost always also laminated, and pre-cut to size.
suitable. Thin pieces like wrenches, pliers, scissors, tongs, knives,
surgical instruments, etc., can be forged from sheet metal cutouts
laminated. Two basic classes of equipment are used for forging operation: the
forging hammer that applies rapid impact strikes on the surface of the metal; and the
forging presses that subject the metal to an applied compressive force
relatively in a slow manner.

Figure 3-Closed die forging

 19

7. CLASSIFICATION REGARDING EQUIPMENT

The type of machine to be used depends on the shape, size, material, and number of
parts to be produced. The equipment for forging can be divided into
two groups: the forging hammers and the presses.

7.1. Forging by pressing

In this type of process, a continuous and slow pressure is applied to the area to be
forged. This operation can be performed hot or cold. The cold operation is
used in annealed materials, and the hot process is done on parts for
heavy machinery. Pressure forging is more economical than forging
due to impact, and large dimensional tolerances are achieved. These types of operation
They can be divided into: open die forging and closed die forging.
The first case can be used in large forgings, where they can be
successive applications of force in different parts of the piece are necessary. Forging
in closed matrix provides the best conditions for obtaining parts
totally exempt from any internal or external alteration, due to the non-destruction of
structure of the material and given the little alteration of the physical state of the raw material

original during shaping. It is possible to produce more complex parts through

forging in closed die than by the other method.

7.1.1. Spindle presses

They consist of a nut/bolt pair, with the rotation of the screw, the upper mass
moves, and can be fixed to the spindle itself or fixed to the nut in this case
it must be mobile, giving rise to two subtypes of presses; those with a movable spindle; and those with

movable pig.

Linked to the spindle is a large disk that functions as an inertia disk,

accumulating energy that is dissipated during descent. The operation of the screw presses
it can be of three types:

through friction discs;

by direct coupling of electric motor;
 20

Figure 4 - diagram of a spindle press

Source: <[Link]

7.1.2. Eccentric or mechanical presses

After the forge hammer, the mechanical press is the most commonly used equipment.
used. It can be made up of a rod/crank pair, to transform a
rotation movement, in a reciprocating linear movement of the upper mass of
press.

To improve the rigidity of this type of press, some variations of the model
white/crank were proposed and thus the eccentric presses with wedge were born.
the eccentric presses with scissors. Eccentric presses with wedge and scissors
that aim to be more rigid than a conventional eccentric press.

The stroke of the hammer in this type of press is shorter than in forging hammers and in
hydraulic presses. The maximum load is achieved when the upper mass is at
approximately 3 mm above the central neutral position. Presses are found
mechanics from 300 to 12,000 tons. The impact of a press is yet another application.
of increasing load of what is really an impact. That is why the matrices suffer less and
they can be less massive. However, the initial cost of a mechanical press is higher than
of a hammer.
 21

7.1.3. Hydraulic presses

Hydraulic presses are machines limited in load, in which the press

hydraulics moves a piston in a cylinder. The main characteristic is that the total load of
pressure is transmitted at any point in the stroke of the piston. This characteristic makes
since hydraulic presses are particularly suitable for operations of
extrusion type forge. The piston speed can be controlled and even varied
during your course. The hydraulic press is a low-speed machine, which
it results in long contact times with the part that can lead to problems with the
loss of heat from the workpiece and with the deterioration of the matrix. On the other hand.
the slow pressing of a hydraulic press results in the forging of small
dimensional tolerances. Hydraulic presses are available in a range from 500 to
18,000 tons, having also built hydraulic presses of 50,000.
tons. The initial cost of a hydraulic press is higher than that of a press
mechanics of the same capacity. Factors are available in the technical literature for
conversion between the capacity of the presses and the hammers of forging.

Figure 6 - diagram of a hydraulic press

Source:[Link]/forum/[Link]?attachmentid=931&d...>access 16/05/2010

7.2. Forging hammer or drop hammer

In this type of equipment, the force is applied by impact generated by large cylinders.
actuators (rams), which can be powered by steam or compressed air.

Forging by hammering is done using a forging hammer, specially designed for the
 22

Figure 7 diagram of a forging hammer

Source: Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy at PUC Rio

[Link]/download/MET%201836%20-%[Link] on May 13, 2010

7.3. Other forging processes

All the information below was taken from the book <fundamentals of shaping
mechanics of metals

There are less common forging processes, which are rotary forging and the
forging in cylinders.

The rotary forging is a process of reducing the cross-sectional area of

bars, tubes or wires, made with the application of repeated radial blows, using the employment
from one or more pairs of opposite matrices. Through this process, it is possible to reduce,
example, tubes starting from 35 cm in diameter and bars starting from 10 cm in diameter
approximately. The figure below (8) shows methods of rotary forging. In (a),
the matrices are conical (these open and close quickly as the piece rotates), in
(b), the matrices turn in a fuselage at the same time as the rollers, around the periphery
of the piece, they open and close striking the piece hundreds of times per minute. This
it is the most common rotary forging process. In (c), the tube is introduced while
the bushing turns continuously. This procedure can be done around
Rotary forging of pipes is done with the aim of reducing diameters.
internal and external, manufacturing of conicity at one end, improvement of
 23

Figure 8 - rotary forging

[Link]

Forging in cylinders is used for reducing the cross-section of bars or

tarugos and, its process occurs as shown in Figure (9).

The piece passes through each groove of the cylinders which, when rotating, compress the piece.

in one of the grooves. The movement is interrupted, the piece is placed in the groove.
next, the cylinders move again, and so on.
 24

Figure 9-forging cylinders

Source:< [Link]

This process is used to increase the length of bars, reduce their diameter
you can modify your cross-section as desired. It is a simple process, with
the advantages of being quick in the preliminary forming of pieces that will be reformed
you, forged in matrix, or even, for the manufacture of objects with shapes already
defined.

8. MOST COMMON UNIT OPERATIONS

All the information below was taken from <[Link]

win/construt. cgi?Configuresult+1120>

They are relatively simple forging shaping operations, using

open matrices or special tools, which may have the purposes of:

Produce finished pieces of simple design;

Redistribute the mass of a raw piece to facilitate obtaining a part of

complex geometry through subsequent forging in a matrix.
 25

Stretching: Aims to increase the length of a piece 'at the expense' of its thickness.

Fullering: A variety of stretching in which the cross-section is reduced.

from an intermediate portion of the piece, through a tool or print
adequate.

Rolling: Operation of distributing mass along the length of the piece,

maintaining the round cross-section while the piece is rotated around its
own axis.

Widening: increases the width of a piece by reducing its thickness.

Drilling: The opening of a hole in a piece, usually by means of a punch.

appropriate format.

Extrusion: The material is forced to pass through an opening with a cross section.
smaller than that of the part.

Forging lamination: Reduces and modifies the cross-section of a bar by passing it through
between two rollers that rotate in opposite directions, each roller having one or more grooves of

suitable profile that fits with the corresponding groove of the other roll.

Heating: Aims to produce the welding of two clean metal surfaces, placed
in contact, heated and subjected to compression.

Coining: Generally performed cold, using a closed or open die, aims to

to produce a well-defined impression on the surface of a piece, being used for
to manufacture coins, medals, cutlery and other small pieces, as well as to engrave
details of various types in larger pieces.

Fendilhamento: It consists of separating the material, usually heated, through a

drilling mandrel provided with a blade; after the tool was introduced up to the
half of the piece, this is turned to be split on the opposite side.

Expansion: Aims to widen a crack or hole, passing through it a

larger dimension tool; usually follows the cracking.
 26

9. DEFECT OF FORGED PRODUCTS

All the information below was taken from <[Link]

[Link]>

Many defects can occur when it comes to metal forging, even more
because metals are worked at high temperatures and under high loads
pressure or impact, let's exemplify some that are usually the main ones:

Lack of Reduction: Incomplete filling of the metal in the tool cavity,

 27

•Cracks in the Edges: Cracks that appear in the region of the edges, after the
deburring, which is the removal of excess metal from forging, appears
because the metal has impurities from casting or because of the burrs
they are small and migrate from the scraps to the forged piece, another reason is that

when rebarbing, the applied effort is very slow, not cutting, but rather
removing the burr.
Internal Cracks: Cracks that appear on the inside of the piece, this occurs
due to tensions originating from large deformations, high temperatures
work and impurities present in the metal.
Cold Got: Apparent crack that presents the shape of a wrinkle on the surface
of the piece and it can be more or less deep, this occurs due to the low temperature
of metal forging or the low working temperature of the mold.
•Oxide incrustations - caused by the layer of oxides that form during the
heating. These incrustations usually come off, but occasionally,
they can get stuck in the pieces.
Decarburization - is characterized by the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel,

caused by the heating of the metal.

Burning - oxidizing gases penetrate the boundaries of the grains, forming

oxide films. It is caused by heating near the melting point.

CONCLUSION

Forging is a widely used manufacturing process, as it depends on

type of process, can generate minimal material loss, good dimensional precision and
improve the mechanical properties of the formed part. This process is divided into
two groups depending on the working equipment: forging by pressing and
forging by hammering.

Forging by pressing has the advantage of being more economical than the
 28

Your study is fundamental for the mechanical technician, to whom one offers one more
option in the sense of processing metallic materials for various applications
industrial.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES:

HELMAN, Horacio; CETLIN, Paulo Roberto. Fundamentals of mechanical shaping

of the metals. 2nd ed. Belo Horizonte: Segrac, 1993. 170p.

Mechanical Forming [Link] Access:

09/04/09

Metal Mechanical Information Center. Available at: <[Link]

 29

Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy of PUC Rio

[Link]/download/MET%201836%20-%[Link]: May 13, 2010

Access: May 15, 2010

Access: 16 May
2010

Engemec. Available at: <[Link] Accessed: May 1

2010

Maintenance and Supplies. Available at: <[Link]

br/content 1870 forging as a machining process/>Access: May 3, 2010

Metal world. Available at: < [Link]

Accessed: May 3, 2010.

Access: 17
May 2010

Orthobusiness
Access: May 16, 2010

Press Technique. Available at: <[Link] Accessed: April 16

2010.

Mechanical manufacturing processes. Available at [Link]/forum

access: 05/16/2010

Aluminum Magazine. 3rd ed. 2008. Available at: <[Link]

Access: May 3, 2010

[Link]:
Equipment>.accessMay 13, 2010