Central University of Venezuela

Faculty of Engineering
School of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Energy
Thermodynamics I Laboratory

Guide 1: Thermodynamic Properties and Measurement Instruments

Objectives:

Introduce some fundamental definitions and concepts in the study of thermodynamics.

Recognize the use of some instruments and equipment used in thermodynamic processes.

Thermodynamic system

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen to

analysis '[Link] 6th ed.'. The matter or region surrounding it is called the surroundings and the
The surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called a boundary.

Types of System:

Closed System or mass of

Control: System with a quantity
determined by mass, by volume
not necessarily fixed. None
could cross its border,
but the energy does. A device
cylinder-piston is an example of
this system, in which the wall
the internal of the cylinder represents the
border.

Open System or volume of

space control system or
determined volume, in which
both mass and energy
they can cross their border. The
devices with this type of
systems are those in which, due to
In general, mass flow is presented as nozzles, compressors, or turbines.

Isolated System: A system in which neither mass nor energy can cross its boundary.
An example would be an ideal thermos; however, we know that sooner or later the contents of the thermos will
will cool or heat, that is, isolated systems are ideal, since they have not currently
achieved.
2. States

State refers to the condition of a system, described by its properties.

Properties are any characteristic of the system and are divided into two groups: extensive and
Intensive properties are those that do not depend on the size of the system, while extensive properties are those that depend on the size of the system, such as mass.

and volume, while intensive properties such as temperature and pressure do not.

Specific properties are the extensive properties per unit mass. For example the
specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m).

3. Processes

When any of the system's properties change, the state changes, so it says that
the system was subjected to a process. To completely define a process, its must be indicated.
initial and final states, as well as the trajectory of the process (intermediate states) and interactions
with the surroundings.

Types of processes:

Isothermal: Process at constant temperature.

-Isobaric: Process at constant pressure.
Isocoric: Process at constant volume.
-Isoenthalpic: Process at constant enthalpy.
-Isentropic: Process at constant entropy.
-Adiabatic: A process in which there is no heat exchange with the environment. If it is also
isothermal, it is said to be reversible adiabatic.
Polytropic: Process of expansion and compression of gases in which all properties vary.
(pressure, volume, temperature, entropy, enthalpy, etc.), where pressure and volume are related
through PVn= ctte (where n=ctte).
4. Properties and scales

4.1 Temperature: According to kinetic theory, temperature is a measure of energy

average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.

Temperature scales: For the determination of temperature patterns used for the
calibration of measuring instruments and performing engineering work it is necessary to designate the
temperature with reference to an arbitrary scale, the universal reference points the point
flux of the wire and the boiling of distilled water. The scales used are in the system
international Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale (thermodynamic temperature) and, in the English system the
Fahrenheit scale and the Rankine scale (thermodynamic temperature).

Temperature scales are divided into two types, relative and absolute. The scales
absolute, Kelvin and Rankine, are based on absolute zero (theoretical lowest temperature), while
that the relative scales, Celsius and Fahrenheit, among others, have another way of being defined. The Celsius scale
it is based on the melting and boiling points of water, and the Fahrenheit scale is based on the point of
freezing of ammonium chloride and human body temperature.

Comparison between scales:

The Kelvin scale is related to Celsius by:

T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15

The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by:

T(R) = T(°F) + 459.67

The scales in the two systems are related by:

T(R) = 1.8 T(K)
T(°F) = 1.8 T(°C) + 32
 Thermal equilibrium: A system is in thermal equilibrium if it has the same temperature.
throughout it. That is to say, in the system there is no temperature differential, which is the force that drives
the flow of heat.

If two systems, not isolated, at different temperatures come into contact, between the two
it will generate a heat flow from the hotter to the colder until both are at the same
temperature, that is, until the systems reach thermal equilibrium.

Temperature Measurement:

They are based on the following physical principles:

Volume change
Pressure change
Change in electrical resistivity
Change in electric potential.
Optical changes.

4.2 Pressure:

Physically, we can define it as the force exerted per unit area. In the case of fluids,
Pressure is the force that it exerts against a unit area of the wall that contains it.

The actual pressure in a fluid is known as absolute pressure, and it is measured with respect to atmospheric pressure.
absolute zero. However, most instruments that measure pressure do so with respect to the
zero atmospheric pressure, this measurement is known as manometric pressure; the pressures
Pressures lower than atmospheric pressure are known as vacuum pressure.

All pressures (absolute,

manometric of empty y
atmospheric) are positive and are
they relate in the following way:

Pmanometric= Pabs-Patm
Pempty= PATM- Pabs

NOTE: The relationships and tables

thermodynamics almost always
they use absolute pressure.
 We can also distinguish in the flow of a fluid the total or stagnation pressure,
static pressure and dynamic pressure.

Static pressure is the pressure that a fluid has, regardless of its velocity.
Dynamic pressure indicates the amount of total pressure that relates to the speed of the fluid.
(Pd= ρv). The total pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic pressure (Po= Ps+ Pd)

NOTE: Dynamic pressure acts only in the direction of flow, static pressure acts upon
equal in all directions at right angles to all the surfaces that contain the fluid.
Then in fluids at rest, the dynamic pressure is null and the static pressure is equal to the
total pressure.

The unit of pressure in the international system is Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2), however it is very
small for the pressures that occur in practice; for which its multiples kilopascal (103
Pa) and megapascals (106Pa) are commonly used. Other commonly used units are bar,
standard atmosphere and kilogram force per square centimeter.

1 bar = 105Dad
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm29.807 * 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm
760 mmHg = 1 atm

5. Properties of pure substances

In pure substances, two phases (gas, liquid, solid) can coexist in equilibrium, for example
the water.

The phase changes of a substance depend on both temperature and pressure. It is

to say, at a certain pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called
saturation temperature, TsatSimilarly, at a certain temperature, the pressure at which a
A pure substance changing phase is known as saturation pressure, [Link].

5.1 Property diagrams for phase change

Property diagrams help to better understand the variations of properties of
A substance during a process. Among them, we can highlight the T-v, P-v, and P-T diagrams.
 T-v and P-v diagrams of the liquid-vapor phases of a pure substance

P-v-T Surface and P-T Diagram (showing the three phases of a pure substance)

5.3 Ideal Gases

The words gas and vapor are commonly used as synonyms; however, we can call
a gas substance when it is at a temperature higher than the critical temperature, while
that the vapor is a gas close to condensation.

An ideal gas is one that obeys the relationship Pv = R*T/M or, equivalently, PV = mRT.
Where P is the absolute pressure, T is the absolute temperature, R* is the universal gas constant and R
the specific constant of the gas under study, M the molar mass and m the mass.
6. Measurement instruments

6.1 Instruments for measuring temperature

Mercury thermometer:

In 1714, Daniel Fahrenheit created the mercury thermometer with a bulb, made up of a capillary of
uniform diameter glass connected at one end to a bulb filled with mercury. The
The set is sealed, and when the temperature increases, the mercury expands and rises through the
capillary. The glass capillary is calibrated for reading the measurement.

Glass thermometers are based on the same principle, varying the fluid they contain.
alcohol example.

Measurement range -38°C to 357°C

Advantages: Portable and direct reading.

Desventajas:Reducido rango de temperaturas, no soporta cambos bruscos de temperatura, es frágil

and its content (mercury) is carcinogenic.

Bimetallic thermometer:

It consists of a stainless steel tube in

whose interior contains a helical spiral
bimetallic. This spiral is welded at one end to
the bottom of the tube and on the other to a rod of
transmission, in turn connected to a gauge needle.

The device takes advantage of the inequality in the

expansion coefficients of two metal sheets of
different metal rigidly joined. The changes of
temperature will produce different expansions, the
The inner sheet is made of the metal that expands the most.
In this way, when the temperature rises the
the spiral unwinds.

Measurement range from -195°C to 760°C

Advantages: Durable and economical, easy to read and can be

placed in different positions. They are reasonably accurate
if they are well used.

Disadvantages: Less accurate than glass thermometers and slow-responding ones.

 Thermocouple

It is a thermoelectric transducer that consists of a pair of metal wires of different materials.

joined at one of their ends (usually soldiers), which goes in the measuring place. Both
terminals are at a point where the temperature is known (reference junction)

This instrument is based on three physical principles:

Thomson effect (1851): A temperature gradient in a metallic conductor is

accompanied by a voltage gradient, whose magnitude and sign depend on the metal being used.
using.

Peltier effect (1834): When an electric current flows through a junction of two
different metals, heat is released or absorbed.

Seebeck effect (1821): when joining two wires of different materials to form a circuit, it
an electric current is generated when the joints are at different temperatures. This
it is due to the combination of the previous effects.

The generated voltage is approximately from 0 to 50 mV, and the temperature range is from -100°C to 1700°C.

Advantages: They are economical, interchangeable, have standard connectors, and are capable of measuring a
wide range of temperatures.

Disadvantages: The main drawback of thermocouples is their need for 'compensation of

zero". This is because at some point the thermocouple wires will need to be spliced with a
normal copper conductor.
 Optical pyrometer:

Device capable of measuring the temperature of a substance without

need to be in contact with her.

Its operating principle consists of any object

with a temperature above 0 Kelvin it emits radiation
thermal, which will be captured and evaluated by the pyrometer.

Temperature range that can be measured between -50°C

up to 4000°C.

Advantages: Suitable for measuring temperatures in objects in

movement or difficult to access.

Disadvantages: They cannot be used to measure clean combustion gases that do not emit energy.
visible. If the pyrometer is manual, its accuracy largely depends on the observer, who must
compare the known radiant energy source (filament) with the temperature source
unknown.

6.2 Instruments to measure pressure

Barometer: Used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Torricelli's Barometer: The first barometers, formed by a column of liquid enclosed in

a tube whose upper part is closed. The weight of the liquid column exactly compensates for the
weight of the atmosphere. The measurement is expressed in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).

Fortin Barometer: It consists of a Torricellian tube that is inserted into the mercury.
content in a tubular glass bucket, equipped with a base made of doe leather whose shape
It can be modified by means of a screw that rests on the tip of a small ivory cone.
This is how a fixed level is maintained. A thermometer is attached to the barometer.

Fortin barometers are used in scientific laboratories for high precision measurements, and the
readings must be corrected taking into account all the factors that may influence them
same, such as the ambient temperature (a factor that is subtracted from the pressure measurement
socket).

This barometer is used in the thermodynamics laboratory of the EIM to measure pressure.
atmospheric. The measure is expressed in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
Bourdon Pressure Gauge: The pressure gauges of
Bourdon tubes are devices used to measure pressures.
greater than atmospheric pressure. The tubes
of Bourdon its curved tubes in a circular shape of
oval section. The pressure to be measured acts on the face
inside the tube, with which the oval section
approaches a circular shape. By bending
tensions are produced in the Bourdon tube
edge that bends the tube. The end of the tube without
tensar executes a movement that represents a
pressure measurement which is transmitted to a needle
indicator.

Range of 35 KPa to 100 MPa

Advantages: Versatile and economical. It can be used in

liquids, oils and gases. Easy to install, of great
sensitivity and with a wide work range.

Disadvantages: They fail due to fatigue, overpressure or

corrosion.
U-Shaped Differential Manometer: Device that measures the
pressure difference between two points. They are glass tubes in shape
U-shaped, connected to a closed reservoir at one end, with the other
open side to the surrounding atmosphere. When placing a liquid
(generally mercury is used) of known density in the part of
U-shaped tube, can you calculate the pressure difference between the
closed deposit and the air out of the manometer, expressing the
difference of pressures in height difference between the liquid in the
right and left extremes of the U-shaped tube.
This device does not necessarily have an outlet to the atmosphere, since
it can be used to measure pressure differences between two or more
fluids.

To calculate the pressure at point P1from the figure we use the

equation:
P1= P2+ ρmagenta∙g∙(h+a) -ρblueg h - ρgreeng a
Advantages: Absolute measurement system and therefore does not depend on calibration.
Disadvantages: To measure high pressures, the tubes must be very long.

Vacuum gauge: Device that measures relative pressures lower than atmospheric pressure.

There are several types of vacuum gauges, including:

Bennett vacuum gauge: Absolute pressure vacuum gauge

analog, direct reading. It consists of a U-shaped tube with one
from the blind ends, evacuated and filled with mercury. The
the open end connects to the vacuum system to measure the
pressure. The standard range is 0 to 160 mm.
Thermopile vacuum meter: The system includes the sensor tube with a
noble metal thermopile, a bridge circuit, and a galvanometer. A
Low voltage AC heats the thermopile to generate an EMF. A
Change in pressure and density of the gas creates a change in heat
transferred to the gas that cools the thermopile, which causes a change in its
temperature and also a change in the DC that passes through the galvanometer,
whose non-linear scale is graduated in mb.

Bourdon type manometer: It works on the same principle as Bourdon manometers.

(Bourdon tube), and its construction is similar, but instead of operating by pressure effects, it operates
by depression or vacuum pressure.

6.3 Instruments for measuring flow

Plate Hole: Flat circular steel sheet

stainless steel with a concentric, eccentric hole
or segmented. It has an exterior dimension equal
to the internal space that exists between the screws
from the assembly flanges, the thickness of the disc
depends on the size of the pipe and the
temperature of operation. If put
perpendicular to the pipe.

The exact location of pressure taps before the orifice plate is relatively lacking in
importance, since the pressure in that section is quite constant. But in the low-pressure intake
it is important, as there is a very unstable region after the vena contracta that must
avoid it; this is the reason why it is recommended to place them for pipes at distances less than
2 inches from the plate sockets. Stability is restored at 8 diameters after the plate but
At this point, the pressures are affected by an abnormal roughness in the pipe.

The calculation of the flow rate or flow is done through

the following equations:

2 2
- Bernoulli: P1/γ+ v1/2∙g = P2/γ+ v2/2∙g

Conservation of mass: ρ1A1∙v1= ρ2A2∙v2

Flow (Q): Q = A∙v

Let γ be the specific gravity, v the velocity, A the area, and v* the average velocity.
Advantages: It is the simplest primary flow measurement element. It uses a small amount of
material in manufacturing. The machining time is relatively short. Economical. Easily
reproducible. Easy to install and dismantle. Good accuracy.

Disadvantages: Produces the greatest pressure losses compared to other elements.

primary flow measurement. Limited measurement range. Requires continuous verification. It
deteriorates over time. Inadequate in the measurement of fluids with suspended solids. Not
its use is advisable in the measurement of vapors. Its behavior with viscous fluids is erratic.
invasive installation. Sensitive to turbulence.

Venturi Tube: The Venturi Tube is a

device, invented by Giovanni Venturi,
that works according to the Venturi Effect that
consists of a fluid in motion
inside a closed conduit it decreases
its pressure increases with speed
after passing through an area of
smaller section.

Then this device creates a pressure drop when a fluid passes through it. Essentially, it consists of
from a short straight pipe, or throat, between two conical sections. The pressure varies in the proximity of
the narrow section; thus, by placing a manometer or recording instrument in the throat, the measurement is taken
pressure drop and makes it possible to calculate the instantaneous flow.

For the flow rate calculation, the same 3 equations used with the orifice plate are used, having in
counts that A1A2P1> P2and v1<v2

Advantages: High accuracy. Can be used in measuring large flows. Produces low drops.
pressures, allowing the measurement of flows 60% greater than those of the orifice plate with the same
restriction. Requires minimal maintenance. Requires a shorter straight entry section than others.
primary elements. Ease of measuring liquid flow with suspended solids.

Disadvantages: Manufacturing cost 20 times higher than that of a hole plate used for measurement.
same flow. Difficult to install. Invasive installation.
Pitot tube: Used to measure flow rate. It was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in 1732, and
it was modified in 1858 by Henry Darcy. It is widely used to measure wind speed in
aircraft and to quantify the velocities of air and gases in industrial applications.
Measure the velocity at a given point in the flow current, not the average flow velocity.

It consists of two tubes that

they detect the pressure at two points
different from the pipe. They can
mount separately or grouped
inside an accommodation, forming
a unique device. One of the tubes
measure the impact pressure in a
point of the vein. The other measures
only the static pressure,
generally through a hole
practiced on the wall of the
driving.

The unit for measuring impact pressure is a tube with one end bent at a right angle.
the direction of the flow. The end of the tube that measures static pressure is closed but has a
small slot on one side.

Anemometer: Meteorological device used for weather forecasting and, specifically,

to measure the wind speed.

The most commonly used are cup anemometers or vane anemometers, a type of tiny three-blade windmill.
spindles with cups on which the force of the wind acts; the number of turns can be read
directly on a counter or recorded on a strip of paper (anemogram), in which case the
The device is called an anemograph. Although there are also electronic types.
Statistical and Measurement Considerations

Average: Also known as arithmetic mean, it is the characteristic value of a series of

quantitative data subject of study that is based on the principle of mathematical expectation or value
expected. It is obtained from the sum of all its values divided by the number of
addends.

Standard deviation: Also called typical deviation, denoted by the symbol σ, is

a measure of dispersion for ratio variables and is defined as the square root of the
variance of the variable

Measurement Error: It is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value.
They affect any measuring instrument and can be due to various causes. Those that
they can be anticipated, calculated or eliminated through calibrations and compensations, are called
systematic error and are related to the accuracy of the measurements. Those that cannot be
to foresee, since they depend on unknown causes, they are called random and are related
with the precision of the instrument.

The main causes that produce errors can be classified as:

Error due to the measuring instrument.

Error due to the operator.
Error due to environmental factors.
Error due to the geometric tolerances of the piece itself.

To determine a systematic error, a series of measurements must be carried out on a magnitude.

Then, the arithmetic mean of these measurements should be calculated, and then find the difference between the
media and magnitude X0.

Systematic error = | mean - X0|